


psych

by MagicSpoon101



Category: Real life - Fandom
Language: English
Status: Completed
Published: 2019-01-23
Updated: 2019-01-28
Packaged: 2019-10-15 02:52:41
Rating: General Audiences
Warnings: Creator Chose Not To Use Archive Warnings
Chapters: 16
Words: 270,173
Publisher: archiveofourown.org
Story URL: https://archiveofourown.org/works/17520791
Author URL: https://archiveofourown.org/users/MagicSpoon101/pseuds/MagicSpoon101





	1. Chapter 1

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1.1 Introducing Psychology  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize psychology's past, modern perspectives, and what psychologists do.  
•Definepsychology , critical thinking, and pseudopsychologies.  
•Reviewstructuralism, functionalism, and the psychoanalytic perspectives.  
•Discussmodern psychology's seven major perspectives and the contributions of women and people of color.  
•Describethe biopsychosocial model, along with individualistic and collectivistic cultures.  
•Summarizepsychology's major career options and specialties.  
Study Tip Learning Objectives  
Each section of every chapter contains learning objectives, which you should attempt to answer in your own words  
as you read that section. Summarizing your answers to these objectives will keep you focused and greatly improve  
your mastery of the material.  
The term psychologyderives from the roots psyche, meaning “mind,” and logos, meaning “word.” Modern  
psychology is most commonly defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Scientificis a key  
feature of the definition because psychologists follow strict scientific procedures to collect and analyze their data.  
Behavior(such as crying, hitting, and sleeping) can be directly observed. Mental processesare private, internal  
experiences that cannot be directly observed (like feelings, thoughts, and memories). As you can see in the photo,  
psychologists study not only behavior and mental processes, but also the application of that knowledge to  
marketing, health management, and many other aspects of our everyday life.  
Psychology also places high value on empirical evidencethat can be objectively tested and evaluated. In addition,  
psychologists emphasize critical thinking, the pr ocess of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and  
synthesizing information(Caine et al., [1.16]; Halpern, [1.54]). Unfortunately , a recent study revealed that high  
school and college students can't tell the difference between factual information presented by a reputable  
newspaper and that presented online by fringe activist groups (Wineberg & McGrew , [1.99]). In this study , college  
students were given 10 minutes to review two different websites: one belonged to the American Academy of  
Pediatrics (a reputable organization nearly 100 years in existence and with over 65,000 members) and the other  
belonged to the American College of Pediatricians (a group that has only about 200 members and has been  
classified as a hate group for claiming homosexuality is linked with pedophilia). Y et college students generally saw  
information presented by both groups as reliable. Does this help explain why the need to critically evaluate the  
information we receive, and its source, is particularly important during these times of heated political debates and  
growing reliance on social media outlets for news?  
As part of your critical thinking, be careful not to confuse psychology, which is founded on the scientific method,  
with pseudopsychologies, which are based on false or unfounded common beliefs, folk wisdom, or superstitions.  
(Pseudomeans “false.”) These sometimes give the appearance of science, but they do not follow the basics of the  
scientific method. Examples include purported psychic powers, horoscopes, mediums, and self-help and “pop  
psych” statements such as “I'm mostly right brained” or “W e use only 10% of our brains.” For some, horoscopes or  
palmists are simple entertainment. Unfortunately , some true believers seek guidance and waste large sums of  
money on charlatans purporting to know the future or to speak with the deceased (e.g., Wilson, [1.98]). Broken-  
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hearted families also have lost valuable time and emotional energy on psychics claiming they could locate their  
missing children. As you can see, distinguishing scientific psychology from pseudopsychology is vitally important  
(Lilienfeld et al., [1.60], [1.59]; Loftus, [1.62]). Given the popularity of these misleading beliefs, be sure to test  
your own possible myths in the following Myth Busters section.  
Psychology in action!One of the many benefits you'll receive from studying psychology is that you'll soon be able  
to easily recognize the psychological principles used in this ad that have been carefully designed to influence you  
as a prospective customer .  
Myth Busters True or False?  
________1.   
The best way to learn and remember information is to “cram,” or study it intensively during one concentrated  
period.  
________2.   
Advertisers and politicians often use subliminal persuasion to influence our behavior.  
________3.   
Most brain activity stops when we're asleep.  
________4.   
Punishment is the most effective way to permanently change behavior .  
________5.   
Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.  
________6.   
Polygraph (“lie detector”) tests can accurately and reliably reveal whether a person is lying.  
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________7.   
Behaviors that are unusual or violate social norms may indicate a psychological disorder.  
________8.   
People with schizophrenia have multiple personalities.  
________9.   
Similarity is one of the best predictors of satisfaction in long-term relationships.  
________10.   
In an emergency , as the number of bystanders increases, your chance of getting help decreases.  
The magician James Randi has dedicated his life to educating the public about fraudulent pseudopsychologists.  
Along with the prestigious MacArthur Foundation, Randi has offered $1 million to “anyone who proves a genuine  
psychic power under proper observing conditions” (Randi, [1.75]; The Amazing Meeting, [1.88]). Even after many  
years, the money has never been collected, and the challenge has been terminated. For details, please see  
http://web.randi.org/home/jref-status  
Psychology's Past  
Although people have long been interested in human nature, it was not until the first psychological laboratory was  
founded in 1879 that psychology as a science officially began. As interest in the new field grew , psychologists  
adopted various perspectives on the “appropriate” topics for psychological research and the “proper” research  
methods. These diverse viewpoints and subsequent debates molded and shaped modern psychological science.  
Psychology's history as a science began in 1879, when Wilhelm W undt [VILL-helm V oont], generally  
acknowledged as the “father of psychology ,” established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany .  
Wundt and his followers were primarily interested in how we form sensations, images, and feelings. Their chief  
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methodology was termed “introspection,” and it relied on participants' self-monitoring and reporting on conscious  
experiences (Freedheim & W einer , [1.43]; Goodwin, [1.49]).  
A student of Wundt's, Edward Titchener , brought his ideas to the United States. Titchener's approach, now known  
as structuralism, sought to identify the basic elements, or “structures,” of mental life through introspection and then  
to determine how these elements combine to form the whole of experience. Because introspection could not be  
used to study animals, children, or more complex mental disorders, however, structuralism failed as a working  
psychological approach. Although short-lived, it did establish a model for studying mental processes scientifically.  
Structuralism's intellectual successor, functionalism, studied the way the mind functions to enable humans and  
other animals to adapt to their environment. William James was the leading force in the functionalist school  
(Figure1.1). Although functionalism also eventually declined, it expanded the scope of psychology to include  
research on emotions and observable behaviors, initiated the psychological testing movement, and influenced  
modern education and industry. T oday , James is widely considered the “father” of American psychology .  
Figure 1.1 William James  
(1842–1910)William James  
founded the perspective known  
as functionalism and established  
the first psychology laboratory  
in the United States, at Harvard  
University . In modern times, he  
is commonly referred to as the  
“father” of American  
psychology , whereas W undt is  
considered the “father” of all  
psychology .  
Study Tip Key T erms and Running Glossary  
Pay close attention to all key terms and concepts, which are boldfaced in the text and then defined.  
During the late 1800s and early 1900s, while functionalism was prominent in the United States, the psychoanalytic  
perspectivewas forming in Europe. Its founder, Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, believed that a part of the  
human mind, the unconscious, contains thoughts, memories, and desires that lie outside personal awareness yet still  
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exert great influence. For example, according to Freud, a man who is cheating on his wife might slip up and say, “I  
wish you were her,” when he consciously planned to say , “I wish you were here.” Such seemingly meaningless, socalled “Freudian slips” supposedly reveal a person's true unconscious desires and motives.  
Freud also believed many psychological problems are caused by unconscious sexual or aggressive motives and  
conflicts between “acceptable” and “unacceptable” behaviors (Chapter 13). His theory led to a system of therapy  
known as psychoanalysis(Chapter 15).  
Freud: If it's not one thing, it's your mother.  
—Robin Williams (Comedian, Actor)  
Modern Psychology  
As summarized in T able1.1, contemporary psychology reflects seven major perspectives: psychodynamic,  
behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural. Although there are numerous  
differences among these seven perspectives, most psychologists recognize the value of each orientation and agree  
that no one view has all the answers.  
T able1.1Modern Psychology's Seven Major Perspectives  
Perspectives Major Emphases Sample Research Questions  
Psychodynamic  
Unconscious dynamics,  
motives, conflicts, and past  
experiences  
How do adult personality traits or psychological  
problems reflect unconscious processes and early  
childhood experiences?  
Behavioral  
Objective, observable,  
environmental influences  
on overt behavior;  
stimulus–response (S-R)  
relationships and  
consequences for behavior  
How do reinforcement and punishment affect  
behavior? How can we increase desirable behaviors  
and decrease undesirable ones?  
Humanistic  
Free will, selfactualization, and human  
nature as naturally positive  
and growth seeking  
How can we promote a client's capacity for selfactualization and understanding of his or her own  
development? How can we promote international  
peace and reduce violence?  
Cognitive  
Mental processes used in  
thinking, knowing,  
remembering, and  
communicating  
How do our thoughts and interpretations affect how  
we respond in certain situations? How can we  
improve how we process, store, and retrieve  
information?  
Biological  
Genetic and biological  
processes in the brain and  
other parts of the nervous  
system  
How might changes in neurotransmitters or damage  
to parts of the brain lead to psychological problems  
and changes in behavior and mental processes?  
Evolutionary  
Natural selection,  
adaptation, and  
reproduction  
How does natural selection help explain why we  
love and help certain people, but hurt others? Do we  
have specific genes for aggression and altruism?  
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Perspectives Major Emphases Sample Research Questions  
Sociocultural  
Social interaction and the  
cultural determinants of  
behavior and mental  
processes  
How do the values and beliefs transmitted from our  
social and cultural environments affect our everyday  
psychological processes?  
Study Tip Illustrations  
Do not skip over photos, figures, and tables.  
They visually reinforce important concepts  
and often contain material that may appear  
on exams.  
Why do we need seven perspectives?What do you  
see in this figure? Is it two profiles facing each  
other, a white vase, or both? Y our ability to see both  
figures is similar to a psychologist's ability to study  
behavior and mental processes from a number of  
different perspectives.  
Freud's nonscientific approach and emphasis on sexual and aggressive impulses have long been controversial, and  
today there are few strictly Freudian psychoanalysts left. However, the broad features of his theory remain in the  
modern psychodynamic perspective. The general goal of psychodynamic psychologists is to explore unconscious  
dynamics—internal motives, conflicts, and past experiences.  
In the early 1900s, another major perspective appeared that dramatically shaped the course of modern psychology .  
Unlike earlier approaches, the behavioral perspectiveemphasizes objective, observable environmental influences  
on overt behavior . Behaviorism's founder , John B. W atson ([1.94]), rejected the practice of introspection and the  
influence of unconscious forces. Instead, W atson adopted Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov's concept of  
conditioning(Chapter 6) to explain behavior as a result of observable stimuli (in the environment) and observable  
tight line responses (behavioral actions).  
Most early behaviorist research was focused on learning; nonhuman animals were ideal participants for this  
research. One of the best-known behaviorists, B. F . Skinner , was convinced that behaviorist approaches could be  
used to “shape” human behavior (Figure1.2). As you'll discover in Chapters 6 and 15, therapeutic techniques  
rooted in the behavioristic perspective have been most successful in treating observable behavioral problems, such  
as those related to phobias and alcoholism (Cheng et al., [1.20]; El-Bar et al., 2017; T yner et al., [1.91]).  
Figure 1.2 B. F .Skinner  
(1904–1990)B. F . Skinner  
was one of the most  
influential psychologists of  
the twentieth century . Here  
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he uses the so-called  
“Skinner box” to train a rat  
to press a lever for a  
reward.  
Although the psychoanalytic and behavioral perspectives dominated psychology for some time, in the 1950s a new  
approach emerged—the humanistic perspective, which stresses fr ee will(voluntarily chosen behavior) and selfactualization(an inborn drive to develop all one's talents and capabilities). According to Carl Rogers and Abraham  
Maslow, two central figures with this perspective, all individuals naturally strive to develop and move toward selfactualization. Like psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology developed an influential theory of personality and its  
own form of psychotherapy (Chapters 12 and 15).  
The humanistic approach also led the way to a contemporary research specialty known as positive psychology—  
the study of optimal human functioning (Diener, [1.28]; Diener & T ay , [1.29]; Seligman, [1.83], [1.84]). For many  
years, psychology understandably focused on negative states, such as aggression, depression, and prejudice. In  
recent years, leaders in the positive psychology movement, such as Ed Diener, Martin Seligman, and Shelly T aylor ,  
have pushed for a broader study of human experiences, with an emphasis on: (1) positive emotions(like hope, love,  
and happiness), (2) positive traits(such as altruism, courage, and compassion), and (3) positive institutionsthat  
help promote better lives (such as improved schools and healthier families) (Seligman, [1.83]). Thanks to its  
scientific methodology and broader focus on optimal functioning, positive psychologyhas provided a wealth of  
new research found throughout this text.  
One of the most influential modern approaches, the cognitive perspective, emphasizes the mental processes we use  
in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating (Goldstein, [1.48]; Greene, [1.53]). These mental  
processes include perception, memory , imagery , concept formation, problem solving, reasoning, decision making,  
and language. Many cognitive psychologists also use an information-pr ocessing approach, likening the mind to a  
computer that sequentially takes in information, processes it, and then produces a response.  
During the past few decades, scientists have explored the role of biological factors in almost every area of  
psychology . Using sophisticated tools and technologies, scientists who adopt this biological perspectiveexamine  
behavior through the lens of genetics and biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system.  
For example, research shows that genes influence many aspects of our behavior, including how kind we are to  
other people, whom we vote for in elections, and even whether or not we decide to purchase a handgun (Barnes et  
al., [1.5]; Ksiazkiewicz et al., [1.58]; Wilson, [1.97]).  
The evolutionary perspectivestresses natural selection, adaptation, and reproduction (Buss, [1.14], [1.15];  
Dawkins, [1.27]; Goldfinch, [1.47]). This perspective stems from the writings of Charles Darwin ([1.25]), who  
suggested that natural forces select traits that aid an organism's survival. This process of natural selectionoccurs  
when a particular genetic trait gives an organism a reproductive advantage over others. Because of natural  
selection, the fastest, strongest, smartest, or otherwise most fit organisms are most likely to live long enough to  
reproduce and thereby pass on their genes to the next generation. According to the evolutionary perspective, there's  
even an evolutionary explanation for the longevity of humans over other primates–it's grandmothers! Without  
them, a mother who has a two-year-old and then gives birth would have to devote her time and resources to the  
newborn at the expense of the older child. Grandmothers act as supplemental caregivers.  
Finally , the sociocultural perspectiveemphasizes social interactions and cultural determinants of behavior and  
mental processes (Figure1.3). Although we are often unaware of their influence, factors such as ethnicity , religion,  
occupation, and socioeconomic class have an enormous psychological impact on our mental processes and  
behavior .  
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Figure 1.3 Psychology in a global economyT echnological  
advances allow instant communication for people who not  
long ago were isolated from events in the rest of the world.  
How do you think these changes affect these men from  
Enaotai Island in W est Papua, New Guinea?  
For instance, researchers recently found that a 10-minute conversation with a random stranger led to significant  
decreases in transphobia(an irrational fear of transgender people) and that these effects lasted at least three months  
(Broockman & Kalla, [1.9]). What caused such a dramatic change? Rather than just presenting facts and talking  
“to” participants, the researchers asked them to recall and discuss their own personal experiences with judgment or  
prejudice. Afterward, they were encouraged to think about how their story related to the experiences of transgender  
people. Do you see how this type of empathy induction—encouraging someone to actively take the perspective of  
another—would lead to reduced prejudice? Or why this research was so widely cited in scientific journals and the  
mass media (Bohannon, [1.7]; Resnick, [1.77])? It's due in part to the fact that deeply held attitudes, like prejudice,  
are so notoriously difficult to change. For more information on this study , see Chapter 16.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Psychology's History of Diversity  
During the late 1800s and early 1900s, most colleges and universities provided little opportunity for women and  
people of color, either as students or as faculty members. One of the first women to be recognized in the field of  
psychology was Mary Calkins. Her achievements are particularly noteworthy, considering the significant  
discrimination that she overcame. For example, married women could not be teachers or professors in coeducational settings during this time in history . In Mary Calkins' case, even after she completed all the  
requirements for a Ph.D. at Harvard University in 1895, and was described by William James as his brightest  
student, the university refused to grant the degree to a woman. Nevertheless, Calkins went on to perform valuable  
research on memory , and in 1905 served as the first female president of the American Psychological Association  
(AP A). The first woman to receive her Ph.D. in psychology was Margaret Floy W ashburn from Cornell University  
in 1894. She also wrote several influential books and served as the second female president of the AP A.  
Francis Cecil Sumner became the first Black person to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (Clark University, 1920). Dr .  
Sumner later chaired one of the country's leading psychology departments, at Howard University. In 1971, one of  
Sumner's students, Kenneth B. Clark, became the first person of color to be elected AP A president. Clark's research  
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with his wife, Mamie Clark, documented the harmful effects of prejudice and directly influenced the Supreme  
Court's landmark 1954 ruling against racial segregation in schools, Brown v . Boar d of Education(Figure1.4).  
Figure 1.4 Kenneth Clark  
(1914–2005) and Mamie  
Phipps Clark (1917–  
1985)Kenneth Clark and  
Mamie Phipps Clark  
conducted experiments  
with Black and White dolls  
to study children's attitudes  
about race. This research  
and their expert testimony  
contributed to the U.S.  
Supreme Court's ruling that  
racial segregation in public  
schools was  
unconstitutional.  
Calkins, W ashburn, Sumner , and Clark, along with other important people of color and women, made significant  
and lasting contributions to psychology's development. T oday , women earning advanced degrees in psychology  
greatly outnumber men, but, unfortunately , people of color are still underrepresented (Graduate Study in  
Psychology , [1.52]; W illyard, [1.100]).  
Culture and the Biopsychosocial Model  
The seven major perspectives have all made significant contributions to modern psychology. This explains why  
most contemporary psychologists do not adhere to one single intellectual perspective. Instead, a more integrative,  
unifying theme—the biopsychosocial model—has gained wide acceptance. This model views biological processes  
(genetics, neurotransmitters, evolution), psychological factors (learning, personality , motivation), and social forces  
(family , culture, gender , ethnicity) as interrelated. It also sees all three factors as influences inseparable from the  
seven major perspectives (Figure1.5).  
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Figure 1.5 The biopsychosocial modelWhen we consider people as individuals (Figure a), we don't  
always get a complete picture of their emotions and motivations. Stepping back to see the same  
individuals in a broader context (Figure b) can provide new insights. W ith this “bigger picture” (the  
child's immediate surroundings and his or her group's behavior) in mind, can you better understand why  
each child might be feeling and acting as he or she is? The biopsychosocial model recognizes that there  
is usually no single cause for our behavior or our mental states (Figure c). For example, our moods and  
feelings are often influenced by genetics and neurotransmitters (biological), our learned responses and  
patterns of thinking (psychological), and our socioeconomic status and cultural views of emotion  
(sociocultural).  
Why is the biopsychosocial model so essential? As the old saying goes, “A fish doesn't know it's in water.”  
Similarly , as individuals living alone inside our own heads, we're often unaware of the numerous, interacting  
factors that affect us—particularly cultural forces. For example, most North Americans and W estern Europeans are  
raised to be very individualistic and are surprised to learn that over 70% of the world's population live in  
collectivistic cultures. As you can see in T able1.2, in individualistic cultur es, the needs and goals of the individual  
are emphasized over the needs and goals of the group. When asked to complete the statement “I am …,” people  
from individualistic cultures tend to respond with personality traits (“I am shy”; “I am outgoing”) or their  
occupation (“I am a teacher”; “I am a student”).  
T able1.2A Comparison Between Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures  
Sample Individualistic Countries Sample Collectivistic Cultures  
United States Korea  
Australia China  
Great Britain India  
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Sample Individualistic Countries Sample Collectivistic Cultures  
Canada Japan  
The Netherlands W est Africa region  
Germany Thailand  
New Zealand T aiwan  
Sample Individualistic V alues Sample Collectivistic V alues  
Independence Interdependence  
Individual rights Obligations to others  
Self-sufficiency Reliance on group  
Individual achievement Group achievement  
Independent living Living with kin  
Personal failure leads to shame and guilt Failing the group leads to shame and guilt  
In collectivistic cultures, however , the person is defined and understood primarily by looking at his or her place in  
the social unit (Fang et al., [1.40]; Moleiro et al., [1.67]; Saucier et al., [1.82]) (see Study Tip). Relatedness,  
connectedness, and interdependence are valued, as opposed to separateness, independence, and individualism.  
When asked to complete the statement “I am …,” people from collectivistic cultures tend to mention their families  
or nationality (“I am a daughter”; “I am Chinese”). Keep in mind, however, that these sample countries and their  
sample values exist on a continuum, and that within each country there is a wide range of individual differences.  
Study Tip Reference Citations  
Throughout this text, you will see citations to publications at the ends of many sentences. These citations—such as  
(Johnson, 2016)—give authors' names and the dates of their publications. Instructors rarely expect you to  
memorize the names and dates in parentheses. They are provided as a starting point for research projects, for  
additional information on a topic of interest, and to double-check the research sources. Complete publication  
information (title of article or chapter , author , journal name or book title, date, and page numbers) can be found in  
the References section provided with this text.  
Looking again at the photos from the cultures in Figure1.5, do you recognize how learning more about the  
biopsychosocial model offers increased understanding of ourselves, our friends, and our families, and how it may  
improve our understanding and sensitivity to other cultures? For example, Americans generally define sincerityas  
behaving in accordance with our inner feelings, whereas people from collectivist cultures tend to see their  
equivalent word for sincerity as behavior that conforms to a person's role expectations and duties (Y amada,  
[1.101]). This explains why collectivistic behaviors might appear insincere to Americans.  
Try This Y ourself Are Y ou an Individualist or a Collectivist?  
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If asked to draw a circle with yourself in the center, and the people in your life as separate circles surrounding you,  
which of the two diagrams comes closest to your personal view?  
If you chose (a), you probably have an individualisticorientation, seeing yourself as an independent, separate self.  
However, if you chose (b), you're more closely aligned with a collectivistculture, seeing yourself as interdependent  
and interconnected with others.  
Psychology and Y our Professional Success W ould Y ou Like a Career in  
Psychology?  
Many people think of psychologists only as therapists, and it's true that the fields of clinical and counseling  
psychology do make up the largest specialty areas. However, many psychologists have no connection with therapy .  
Instead, we work as researchers, teachers, or consultants in academic, business, industry , and government settings,  
or in a combination of settings (e.g., Roediger, [1.79]; Silvia et al., [1.85]; Sternberg, [1.87]). As you can see in  
T able1.3, there are several career paths and valuable life skills associated with a bachelor's degree in psychology.  
Of course, your options are even greater if you go beyond the bachelor's degree and earn your master's degree,  
Ph.D., or Psy .D.—see T able1.4. For more information about what psychologists do—and how to pursue a career  
in psychology—check out the websites of the American Psychological Association (AP A) and the Association for  
Psychological Science (APS).  
T able1.3What Can I Do with a Bachelor's Degree in Psychology?  
T op Careers with a Bachelor's Degree in Psychology  
Management and administration  
Sales  
Social work  
Labor relations, personnel, and training  
Real estate, business services, insurance  
Sample Skills Gained from a Psychology Major  
Improved ability to predict and understand behavior  
Better understanding of how to use and interpret data  
Increased communication and interpersonal skills  
Increased ability to manage difficult situations and high-stress environments  
Enhanced insight into problem behavior  
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T op Careers with a Bachelor's Degree in Psychology  
Note that the U.S. Department of Labor predicts only an average rate of growth for psychologists in the next  
decade. However, the good news is that a degree in our field, and this course in general psychology , will provide  
you with invaluable lifetime skills.  
T able1.4Sample Careers and Specialties in Psychology  
CAREER/SPECIAL TY DESCRIPTION  
Clinical and counseling psychology  
For most people, this is the role most  
commonly associated with psychology .  
Biopsychologist/neuroscientist  
Investigates the relationship between  
biology , behavior , and mental processes,  
including how physical and chemical  
processes affect the structure and  
function of the brain and nervous system  
Clinical psychologist  
Specializes in the evaluation, diagnosis,  
and treatment of psychological disorders  
Cognitive psychologist  
Examines “higher” mental processes,  
including thought, memory , intelligence,  
creativity , and language  
Comparative psychologist  
Studies the behavior and mental  
processes of non-human animals;  
emphasizes evolution and cross-species  
comparisons  
Counseling psychologist  
Overlaps with clinical psychology, but  
generally works with less seriously  
disordered individuals and focuses more  
on social, educational, and career  
adjustment  
Cross-cultural  
psychologist/psychological  
anthropologist  
Studies similarities and differences in  
and across various cultures and ethnic  
groups  
Comparative and experimental psychology  
Research with human and nonhuman  
animals has provided valuable insights into  
behavior and mental processes.  
Developmental psychologist  
Studies the course of human growth and  
development from conception to death  
Educational psychologist  
Studies the processes of education and  
works to promote the academic,  
intellectual, social, and emotional  
development of children in the school  
environment  
Environmental psychologist  
Investigates how people affect and are  
affected by the physical environment  
Experimental psychologist  
Examines processes such as learning,  
conditioning, motivation, emotion,  
sensation, and perception in humans and  
other animals (Note that psychologists  
working in almost all other areas of  
specialization also conduct research.)  
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CAREER/SPECIAL TY DESCRIPTION  
Forensic psychologist  
Applies principles of psychology to the  
legal system, including jury selection,  
psychological profiling, assessment, and  
treatment of offenders  
Gender and/or cultural  
psychologist  
Investigates how men and women and  
different cultures vary from one another  
and how they are similar  
Health psychologist  
Studies how biological, psychological,  
and social factors affect health, illness,  
and health-related behaviors  
Psychologists often wear many hats  
Professor Katherine Dowdell teaches full  
time at Des Moines Area Community  
College, serves as a department chair, and  
is a co-author of this text.  
Industrial/organizational  
psychologist  
Applies principles of psychology to the  
workplace, including personnel  
selection and evaluation, leadership, job  
satisfaction, employee motivation, and  
group processes within the organization  
Personality psychologist  
Studies the unique and relatively stable  
patterns in a person's thoughts, feelings,  
and actions  
Positive psychologist  
Examines factors related to optimal  
human functioning  
School psychologist  
Collaborates with teachers, parents, and  
students within the educational system  
to help children with special needs  
related to a disability and/or their  
academic and social progress; also  
provides evaluation and assessment of a  
student's functioning and eligibility for  
special services  
Social psychologist  
Investigates the role of social forces in  
interpersonal behavior , including  
aggression, prejudice, love, helping,  
conformity , and attitudes  
Sport psychologist  
Applies principles of psychology to  
enhance physical performance  
Retrieval Practice 1.1 Introducing Psychology  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Psychology is defined as the ________.  
a. science of conscious and unconscious forces  
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b. empirical study of the mind and behavior  
c. scientific study of the mind  
d. scientific study of behavior and mental processes  
2\.   
Define critical thinking.  
3\.   
________is generally acknowledged to be the father of psychology .  
a. Sigmund Freud  
b. B. F . Skinner  
c. Wilhelm W undt  
d. William T ell  
4\.   
Which of the following terms do not belong together?  
a. structuralism, unconscious behavior  
b. behaviorism, observable behavior  
c. psychoanalytic, unconscious conflict  
d. humanism, free will  
5\.   
The ________views biological processes, psychological factors, and social forces as interrelated influences, and it  
is one of the most widely accepted themes of modern psychology .  
a. eclectic perspective  
b. nature-nurture model  
c. interactionist position  
d. biopsychosocial model  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
1\.   
In the Prologue to this textbook, you learned about Critical Thinking Components (CTCs). Among these are  
distinguishing fact from opinion (behavioral), welcoming divergent views (affective), and synthesizing information  
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(cognitive). Discuss how each of these CTCs is relevant to the study of psychology .  
2\.   
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), you'll discover some of the reasons why people choose to help each other.  
Using at least three of the seven modern perspectives of psychology, explain why a person might choose to help (or  
not to help) a person in need.  
Study Tip  
Each major topic concludes with Self-T est questions that allow you to stop and check your understanding of the  
key concepts just discussed. Our students have found that completing these questions greatly improves their test  
scores. Be sure to also provide your own answers to the Connections questions, and then compare all your answers  
with those provided.  
.  
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1.2 The Science of Psychology  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Discuss the key principles underlying the science of psychology.  
•Compare and contrastthe fundamental goals of basic and applied research.  
•Describethe scientific method, its key terms, and its six steps.  
•Reviewpsychology's four main goals.  
•Discussthe ethical concerns and guidelines for psychological research.  
Basic and Applied Research  
In science, research strategies are generally categorized as either basicor applied. Basic researchis most often conducted to advance core scientific knowledge,  
whereas applied researchis generally designed to solve practical (“real-world”) problems (Figure1.6). As you'll see in Chapter 6, classical and operant  
conditioning principles evolved from numerous basic researchstudies designed to advance the general understanding of how human and nonhuman animals  
learn. In Chapters 14 and 15, you'll also discover how applied researchbased on these principles has been used to successfully treat psychological disorders,  
such as phobias. Similarly , in Chapter 7, you'll see how basic research on how we create, store, and retrieve our memories has led to practical applications in the  
legal field, such as a greater appreciation for the fallibility of eyewitness testimony .  
a. Spatial correspondence  
Controls for stovetops should be arranged in a pattern that corresponds to the placement of the burners.  
b. V isibility  
Automobile gauges for fuel, temperature, and speed should be easily visible to the driver.  
c. Arrangement of numbers  
A top-down arrangement of numbers on a cell phone is more efficient than the bottom-up arrangement on a  
computer's keyboard.  
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Figure 1.6 Applied research in psychologyNote how psychological research has helped design safer and more  
reliable appliances, machinery , and instrument controls (Psychology Matters, [1.73]).  
Remember that basic and applied research approaches are not polar opposites. Instead, they frequently share similar goals, and their outcomes interact, with one  
building on the other .  
The Scientific Method  
While conducting either basic or applied research, psychologists follow strict, standardized procedures so that others can understand, interpret, and repeat or  
test their findings. Most scientific investigations consist of six basic steps, collectively based on the scientific method(Step-by-Step Diagram1.1). For  
example, are you wondering whether completing the Retrieval Practiceexercises sprinkled throughout each chapter of this text, including those at the ends of  
sections and those within the Learning Objectives and Key T erms, is worth your time? Or if it will help you do better on exams?  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 1.1 The Scientific Method  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
Study Tip  
Research has shown that having access to diagrams showing how a process works results in higher performance on tests than having no diagrams at all, or just  
a text outline of the process (Bui & McDaniel, [1.12]). This and other research, along with our own experiences as educators, explains why we've included  
numerous step-by-step diagrams throughout this text.  
Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving and self-correcting through application of the scientific method. As soon as one research study is published, the  
cycle almost always begins again.  
Study Tip  
The ongoing, circular nature of the scientific method often frustrates students. In most chapters, you will encounter numerous and sometimes conflicting  
scientific theories, and you'll be tempted to ask: “Which theory is right?” But, like most aspects of behavior, the “correct” answer is usually an interaction. In  
most cases, multiple theories contribute to the full understanding of complex concepts.  
Let's see how we might use the scientific method to answer these questions. Starting with Step 1, you would first identify the question of inter est, which in this  
case is: “How might retrieval practice exercises affect exam grades?” As part of this identification, you need to clarify the specific factors your research will  
need to observe and measure—in this case, retrieval practice exercises and exam grades. Note that these specific factors are officially referred to as variables,  
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which are simply any traits or conditions that can vary or change. After completing this first part of Step 1, you would perform a literature review, which  
involves consulting professional journals and studying previous research findings on retrieval practice and exam grades.  
T o complete Step 2, you would need to form an educated guess based on your literature review in Step 1. Y ou would then turn this guess into a statement,  
called a hypothesis, which provides predictions that can be tested in some way . Y ou would need to explicitly state how each of the variables in your hypothesis  
will be operationally defined(observed and measured). For example, a better grade on your exams might be operationally defined as earning one letter grade  
higher than the letter grade on your previous exam. Using your initial question about the value of the Retrieval Practice exercises, your hypothesis and  
operational definitions might be: “Students who spend two hours studying Chapter 1 in this text and one hour completing the Retrieval Practice exercises will  
earn higher scores on a standard academic exam than students who spend three hours studying Chapter 1 without completing the Retrieval Practice exercises.”  
For Step 3, you would most likely choose an experimental research design and solicit volunteers for your experiment. For instance, you might recruit 100  
volunteers from various classes. Of these, you could randomly assign 50 to Group 1 (Retrieval Practice) and the other 50 to Group 2 (no Retrieval Practice).  
After having both groups study for three hours, you could present and score a 20-point quiz, followed by a statistical analysis (Step 4) to determine whether the  
difference in test scores between the two groups is statistically significant. T o be statistically significant, the difference between the groups must be large  
enough that the result is probably not due to chance.  
In Step 5, you could publish your research, and then you could go on to further investigate additional study techniques that might contribute to theory  
development on the most effective study methods, Step 6. [Y ou'll be interested to know that research does exist on the superiority of retrieval practice in  
improving retention of material and exam scores (Carpenter & Y eung, [1.18]; Trumbo et al., [1.90]; W einstein et al., [1.95]), which is why self-testing is so  
often emphasized throughout this text. As you'll see in Chapter 3, practice testing can even reduce the negative effects of stress (Smith et al., [1.86])!]  
Note also in Step-by-Step Diagram 1.1 that the scientific method is cyclical and cumulative. Scientific progress comes from repeatedly challenging and revising  
existing theories and building new ones. If numerous scientists, using different procedures or participants in varied settings, can repeat, or r eplicate, a study's  
findings, there is increased scientific confidence in the findings. If the findings cannot be replicated, researchers look for other explanations and conduct further  
studies. When different studies report contradictory findings, researchers may average or combine the results of all such studies and reach conclusions about the  
overall weight of the evidence, a popular statistical technique called meta-analysis. For example, as you'll discover in Chapter 1 1, a cross-cultural meta-analysis  
found that school-based programs teaching children about sexual abuse led to more children disclosing such abuse (W alsh et al., [1.92]).  
As you can see in Step 6, after many related findings have been collected and confirmed, scientists may generate a theoryto explain the data through a  
systematic, interrelated set of concepts. In common usage, the term theoryis often assumed to mean something is only a hunch or someone's personal opinion.  
In reality , scientific theories are based on empirical evidence, rigorously tested, and self-correcting ( Figure1.7).  
Figure 1.7 Opinions versus facts—science to the rescue!Early experiments, conducted primarily by Nicolaus  
Copernicus (1473–1543), led to a collection of facts and the ultimate theory that the Earth was not the center of the  
universe (as generally assumed at the time) (Figure a). Instead, it rotated around the sun with the other planets in  
concentric circles. Later scientists (astronomers Johannes Kepler and T ycho Brahe) built on this Copernican  
(heliocentric) theory with additional experiments that led to a revised theory , in which the orbits were not circular , but  
rather elliptical (Figure b). T oday , researchers have expanded the theory even further by demonstrating that our sun is  
not the center of the universe, but only a part of a galaxy that in turn is only one of many billions. Can you see how  
these incremental changes illustrate the value of scientific theories and their ever-changing and self-correcting nature?  
Psychology's Four Main Goals  
In contrast to pseudopsychologies, which we discussed earlier and which rely on unsubstantiated beliefs and opinions, psychology is based on rigorous  
scientific methods. When conducting their research, psychologists have four major goals—to describe, explain, predict, and changebehavior and mental  
processes:  
1.Description Description tells what occurred. In some studies, psychologists attempt to describe, or name and classify , particular behaviors by making  
careful scientific observations. Description is usually the first step in understanding behavior. For example, if someone says, “Boys are more aggressive  
than girls,” what does that mean? The speaker's definition of aggression may differ from yours. Science requires specificity .  
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2.Explanation An explanation tells why a behavior or mental process occurred. Explaininga behavior or mental process requires us to discover and  
understand its causes. One of the most enduring debates in science is the nature–nurture controversy. Are we controlled by biological and genetic factors  
(the nature side) or by the environment and learning (the nurture side)? As you will see throughout the text, psychology (like all other sciences) generally  
avoids “either/or” positions and focuses instead on interactions. T oday , almost all scientists agree that most psychological, and even physical, traits reflect  
an interaction between nature and nurture. For example, research suggests numerous interacting causes or explanations for aggression, including culture,  
learning, genes, brain damage, and testosterone (Bushman, [1.13]; Gerring & V asa, [1.45]; Lippa, [1.61]).  
3.Prediction Psychologists generally begin with description and explanation (answering the “whats” and “whys”). Then they move on to the higher-level  
goal of prediction, identifying “when” and under what conditions a future behavior or mental process is likely to occur . For instance, knowing that alcohol  
is linked with aggression (e.g., Buchholz et al., [1.11]; Crane et al., [1.23]), we can predict that more fights will erupt in places where alcohol is consumed  
than in places where it isn't.  
4.Change For some people, change as a goal of psychology brings to mind evil politicians or cult leaders brainwashing unknowing victims. However, to  
psychologists, changemeans applying psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted outcomes or bring about desired goals. In almost all cases, change as  
a goal of psychology is positive. Psychologists help people improve their work environments, stop addictive behaviors, become less depressed, improve  
their family relationships, and so on. Furthermore, as you may know from personal experience, it is very difficult (if not impossible) to change someone's  
attitude or behavior against her or his will. (Here is an old joke: Do you know how many psychologists it takes to change a light bulb? Answer: None. The  
light bulb has to want to change.)  
Psychology's Research Ethics  
So far, we've discussed applied versus basic research, the scientific method, and the four basic goals of psychology . Now we need to examine the general ethics  
that guide psychological research. The two largest professional organizations of psychologists, the American Psychological Association (AP A) and the  
Association for Psychological Science (APS), both recognize the importance of maintaining high ethical standards in research, therapy, and all other areas of  
professional psychology . The preamble to the AP A's publication Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct([1.39]) requires psychologists to  
maintain their competence, to retain objectivity in applying their skills, and to preserve the dignity and best interests of their clients, colleagues, students,  
research participants, and society . In addition, colleges and universities today have institutional review boards (IRBs) that carefully evaluate the ethics and  
methods of research conducted at their institutions.  
Respecting the Rights of Human Participants  
The AP A and APS have developed rigorous guidelines regulating research with human participants, including:  
•Informed consent Researchers must obtain informed consentfrom all participants beforeinitiating an experiment. Participants are made aware of the nature  
of the study , what to expect, and significant factors that might influence their willingness to participate, including all physical risks, discomfort, and  
possibly unpleasant emotional experiences.  
•V oluntary participation Participants must be told that they're free to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research at any time.  
•Restricted use of deception, followed by debriefing. If participants knew the true purpose behind certain studies, they might not respond naturally . In one  
of psychology's most famous, and controversial, studies (Milgram, [1.66]), researchers ordered participants to give electric shocks to another participant  
(who was really a confederate of the researchers and was not receiving any shocks). Although this study was testing participants' willingness to follow  
orders, they were told that the study was examining the use of shocks to assist with learning. Obviously, in this case, participants' behavior could not be  
accurately measured if they were told the real focus of the study . Therefore, researchers occasionally need to temporarily deceive participants about the  
actual reason for the experiment.  
However, when deception is necessary , ethical guidelines and restrictions still apply . One of the most important is debriefing, which is conducted once the  
data collection has been completed. The researchers provide a full explanation of the research, including its design and purpose and any deception used, and  
then address participants' misconceptions, questions, or concerns.  
•Confidentiality Whenever possible, participants are provided anonymity. All personal information acquired during a study must be kept private and not  
published in such a way that an individual's right to privacy is compromised.  
Respecting the Rights of Nonhuman Animals  
Nonhuman animals have long played an essential role in scientific research (Figure1.8). Without nonhuman animals in medical research, how would we test  
new drugs, surgical procedures, and methods for relieving pain? In psychological research, nonhuman animals (mostly rats and mice) are used in only 7 to 8%  
of studies (AP A, [1.2]; ILAR, [1.56]; MORI, [1.64]). Nevertheless, they have made significant contributions to almost every area of psychology—the brain and  
nervous system, health and stress, sensation and perception, sleep, learning, memory, motivation, and emotion. For example, an experiment with rats found that  
those who are fed a diet high in fats and sugars show impairment in their learning and memory (Tran & W estbrook, [1.89]). This study could have critical realworld implications for people, but do you see why this type of research would be unethical and impossible to conduct using human subjects?  
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Figure 1.8 T est your critical thinking  
1.Nonhuman animals, like the mice in this  
photo, are sometimes used in psychological  
research when it would be impractical or  
unethical to use human participants. Do you  
believe nonhuman animal research is ethical?  
Why or why not?  
2.What research questions might require the  
use of nonhuman animals? How would you  
ensure the proper treatment of these animals?  
Nonhuman animal research has also produced significant gains for some animal populations. Examples include the development of more natural environments  
for zoo animals and more successful breeding techniques for endangered species.  
Despite the advantages, using nonhuman animals in psychological research remains controversial. While debate continues about ethical issues in such research,  
psychologists take great care in handling research animals. Researchers also actively search for new and better ways to minimize any harm to the animals (APA  
Congressional Briefing, [1.4]; Morling, [1.68]; Pope & V asquez, [1.72]).  
Respecting the Rights of Psychotherapy Clients  
Professional organizations, such as the AP A and APS, as well as academic institutions and state and local agencies, all require that therapists, like researchers,  
maintain the highest ethical standards (Ethical Principles of Psychologists, [1.39]; Knapp et al., [1.57]). Therapists must also honor their clients' trust. All  
personal information and therapy records must be kept confidential. Furthermore, client records are only made available to authorized persons, and with the  
client's permission. However, therapists are legally required to break confidentiality if a client threatens violence to him or herself or to others, if a client is  
suspected of abusing a child or an elderly person, and in other limited situations (Fisher, [1.41]; Gebhardt, [1.44]).  
A Final Note on Ethical Issues  
What about ethics and beginning psychology students? Once friends and acquaintances know you're taking a course in psychology, they may ask you to  
interpret their dreams, help them discipline their children, or even ask your opinion on whether they should start or end their relationships. Although you will  
learn a great deal about psychological functioning in this text, and in your psychology class, take care that you do not overestimate your expertise. Also  
remember that the theories and findings of psychological science are cumulative and continually being revised.  
David L. Cole, a recipient of the AP A Distinguished T eaching in Psychology A ward, reminds us that, “Undergraduate psychology can, and I believe should,  
seek to liberate the student from ignorance, but also the arrogance of believing we know more about ourselves and others than we really do” (Cole, [1.22], p.  
24).  
Try This Y ourself W ant to Participate in Psychological Research?  
If you'd like more information about psychological research—or if you'd like to try participating in some research studies yourself—go to  
https://www .mturk.com/mturk/welcome. Through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MT urk)online service, researchers all over the world post studies that need  
participants. Y ou may get paid for participating, but more importantly , you'll be making a valuable contribution to psychological science!  
Retrieval Practice 1.2 The Science of Psychology  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will  
provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Label the six steps in the scientific method.  
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2\.   
A(n) ________provides a precise definition of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured.  
a. meta-analysis  
b. theory  
c. independent observation  
d. operational definition  
3\.   
The goal of ________is to tell what occurred, whereas the goal of ________is to tell when.  
a. health psychologists; biological psychologists  
b. description; prediction  
c. psychologists; psychiatrists  
d. pseudopsychologists; clinical psychologists  
4\.   
Briefly explain the difference between a scientific theory , an opinion, and a hunch.  
5\.   
A participant's agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect is known as ________.  
a. psychological standards  
b. an experimental contract  
c. debriefing  
d. informed consent  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In the Prologue to this textbook, you learned about Critical Thinking Components (CTCs). For each of the six steps of the scientific method, list at least one  
CTC used in or demonstrated by that step.  
.  
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1.3 Research Methods  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize psychology's three major research methods.  
•Reviewdescriptive research and its four key methods.  
•Discusscorrelational research and its limits and value.  
•Identifythe key terms and components of experimental research.  
Having studied the scientific method and psychology's four main goals, we can now examine how psychologists conduct their research.  
Psychologists generally draw on three major research methods—descriptive, corr elational, and experimental. Bear in mind that these  
major research methods all share several common goals: to gather information, generate research ideas, provide data for current and  
further studies, and communicate results. But, as you can see in T able1.5, each of these approaches has advantages and disadvantages,  
and psychologists often use variations of all three methods to study a single problem. In fact, when multiple approaches lead to similar  
conclusions, scientists have an especially strong foundation for concluding that one variable does affect another in a particular way .  
T able1.5Psychology's Three Major Research Methods  
Method Purpose Advantages Disadvantages  
Descriptive  
•Naturalistic  
observation  
•Survey/interview  
•Case study  
•Archival research  
T o observe and  
record behavior and  
mental processes  
•Allows studies in realworld settings with realworld applications  
•Provides in-depth  
information on  
individuals and/or large  
groups  
•Offers data and ideas  
for future research  
•Meets psychology's  
goal of description  
•Little or no control over variables  
•Potential biases  
•Cannot specify cause and effect  
•Single cases or large surveys may  
be misleading  
•Ethical and legal concerns over  
collection and use of data  
Correlational  
Statistical analyses of  
relationships between  
variables  
T o detect if two or  
more variables are  
related  
•Allows studies in realworld settings with realworld applications  
•Identifies strength and  
direction of relationships  
•Offers data and ideas  
for future research  
•Meets psychology's  
goal of prediction  
•Little or no control over variables  
•Potential biases  
•Cannot specify cause and effect  
•Possible illusory correlations and  
third-variable problems  
•Ethical and legal concerns over  
collection and use of data  
Experimental  
Manipulation and  
control of variables  
T o determine  
potential cause and  
effect  
•Allows more precise  
control over variables  
•Permits causal  
explanation of behavior  
and mental processes  
•Meets psychology's  
goal of explanation  
•Cannot manipulate or control  
certain variables  
•Potential biases  
•Results may not generalize to realworld settings  
•Ethical and legal concerns over use  
of data and manipulation of  
participants and certain variables  
Note that the three methods are not mutually exclusive. Researchers may use one, two, or all three methods to explore the same topic.  
Descriptive Research  
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Almost everyone observes and describes others in an attempt to understand them, but in conducting descriptive research, psychologists  
do so systematically and scientifically . The key types of descriptive research are naturalistic observation, survey/interview, case study,  
and archival research.  
Naturalistic Observation  
As the name implies, naturalistic observationinvolves systematic observation and recording of participants in their natural setting—  
without interference by the researchers. Such observations can be conducted in a wide variety of settings, from supermarkets to airports  
to outdoors. Their major function is to gather descriptive information about the typical behavior of people and nonhuman animals. For  
example, Jane Goodall's classic naturalistic observations of wild chimpanzees provided invaluable insights into their everyday lives,  
such as their use of tools, their acts of aggression, their demonstrations of affection, and, sadly , even their killing of other chimps' babies  
(infanticide). A recent observational study of humans examined whether Uber and L yft drivers take longer to respond to ride requests  
from Black travelers than from White travelers (Ge et al., [1.46]). Can you guess what they found? See Chapter 16 for the full story.  
The chief advantage of naturalistic observation is that researchers can obtain data about natural behavior in a real-world setting, rather  
than in an artificial experimental situation. But naturalistic observation can be difficult and time-consuming, and the lack of control by  
the researcher makes it difficult to conduct observations for behavior that occurs infrequently .  
For a researcher who wants to observe behavior in a more controlled setting, laboratory observationhas many of the advantages of  
naturalistic observation, but with greater control over the variables (Figure1.9).  
Figure 1.9 Laboratory observationIn this type of observation,  
the researcher brings participants into a specially prepared  
room, with one-way mirrors or hidden cameras and  
microphones. Using such methods, the researcher can observe  
school children at work, families interacting, or other  
individuals and groups in various settings.  
Survey/Interview  
Psychologists use surveys/interviewsto ask people to report their behaviors, opinions, and attitudes (see cartoon). In Chapter 3, you'll  
read about survey research showing that even a single close childhood friendship can protect vulnerable children in lower  
socioeconomic circumstances from several psychological risk factors (Graber et al., [1.51]).  
One key advantage of this approach is that researchers can gather data from many more people than is generally possible with other  
research designs. Unfortunately , most surveys/interviews rely on self-reported data, and not all participants are honest. As you might  
imagine, people are especially motivated to give less-than-truthful answers when asked about highly sensitive topics, such as infidelity,  
drug use, and pornography .  
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Case Study  
What if a researcher wants to investigate photophobia (fear of light)? In such a case, it would be difficult to find enough participants to  
conduct an experiment or to use surveys/interviews or naturalistic observation. For rare disorders or phenomena, researchers try to find  
someone who has the problem and study him or her intensively . This type of in-depth study of a single research participant, or a small  
group of individuals, is called a case study. In Chapter 2, we'll discuss the fascinating case study of Phineas Gage, who suffered a  
horrific brain injury , and in Chapter 9 we'll share a disturbing case study examining the effects of extreme childhood neglect and abuse.  
Such studies obviously could not be conducted using another method, for ethical reasons and because of the rarity of the conditions  
being studied.  
Archival Research  
The fourth type of descriptive research is archival research, in which researchers study previously recorded data. For example, archival  
data from 30,625 Himalayan mountain climbers from 56 countries found that expeditions from countries with hierarchical cultures,  
which believe that power should be concentrated at the top and followers should obey leaders without question, had more climbers  
reach the summit than did climbers from more egalitarian cultures (Anicich et al., [1.3]). Sadly , they also had more climbers die along  
the way . The researchers concluded that hierarchical values impaired performance by preventing low-ranking team members from  
sharing their valuable insights and perspectives. (If you're wondering about how America ranked, we're a little below midpoint in  
hierarchical values.)  
Interestingly , the new “digital democracy ,” based on spontaneous comments on T witter or Facebook, may turn out to be an even better  
method of research than the traditional random sampling of adults. Researchers who used a massive archive of billions of stored data  
from T witter found “tweet share” predicted the winner in 404 out of 435 competitive races in the U.S. House elections in 2010  
(DiGrazia et al., [1.30]). Apparently , just the total amount of discussion—good or bad—is a very good predictor of votes.  
Correlational Research  
As you've just seen, data collected from descriptive research provides invaluable information on behavior and mental processes. The  
findings typically describe the dimensions of a phenomenon or behavior in terms of who was involved, what happened, and when and  
where it occurred. However, if we want to know whetherand howtwo or more variables change together , we need correlational  
research. As the name implies, the purpose of this approach is to determine whether any two variables are co-r elated, meaning a change  
in one is accompanied by a change in the other . If one variable increases, how does the other variable change? Does it increase or  
decrease?  
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For example, a recent study found that as we get older, our job satisfaction tends to increase—yet over time within a given organization  
we become less satisfied (Dobrow et al., [1.31]). How can we explain this odd finding? Our job satisfaction apparently follows a  
cyclical pattern. When first employed, we go through a “honeymoon period,” but our satisfaction tends to decline the longer we stay in  
that particular job. However , when we move on to another organization, with generally higher wages, our satisfaction increases.  
As you can see, correlational research allows us to make predictionsabout one variable based on knowledge of another . Suppose  
scientists noted a relationship between hours of studying and performance on exams. The researchers could then predict exam grades  
based on amount of studying. The researchers also could determine the direction and strength of the relationship using a statistical  
formula that gives a correlation coefficient, which is a number from −1.00 to + 1.00 (see Concept Organizer1.1).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 1.1 Understanding the Role of Correlation Coefficients in  
Correlational Research  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
As mentioned, corr elational researchexamines whether and how two or more variables change together. Once researchers have  
collected measures on a group under study , they calculate a statistic known as a corr elation coefficient. This number ranges from −1.00  
to +1.00 and is commonly represented by the letter r , as in r = +.54or r = −.32. As you'll see below , the + or − sign indicates the  
directionof the correlation, whereas the number (.54 or .32) indicates the str engthof the correlation between two variables.  
Understanding what all of this means is crucial to becoming an educated consumer of research.  
•Direction of the correlation Correlational research can produce three types of correlations that vary in different directions. As  
shown in Figure1.10 below , when two factors vary in the same direction (Figure a), meaning they increase or decrease together,  
it's called a positive correlation. When two factors vary in opposite directions (Figure b), with one increasing as the other  
decreases, it's known as a negative correlation. When there is NO relation between the two variables (Figure c), it's a zer o  
corr elation. The plusor minussign in a correlation coefficient indicates the directionof the correlation, with plus indicating a  
positive correlation (as in +.07) and minus indicating a negative correlation (as in −.07). For a zero correlation, no sign is used (as in  
.00).  
Figure 1.10 Three types of correlationNote that these are hypothetical graphs, but the results in Figure aand Figure bare  
consistent with research findings on the importance of class attendance (e.g., Putnam et al., [1.74]). For more details, see the  
T ools for Student Successsection at the end of this chapter .  
Correlation coefficients are often depicted in graphs called scatterplots, a type of graph in which two variables are plotted along two  
axes (see again Figure1.10). Note that each dot in a scatterplot represents the values of two variables for one participant. The  
pattern (or “scattering”) of the plots reveals the direction of the correlation (positive, negative, or zero).  
•Strength of the correlation Look again at the scatterplots in Figure1.10, and note how the various dots cluster around the three  
solid dark lines. The closer the dots are together, the stronger the relationship—little scatter (more clustering) indicates a high  
correlation. Note in Figure1.11 (shown on the right) that as the number of the correlational coefficient decreases and gets closer to  
0.00, the relationship weakens. In comparison, a correlation of +1.00 or −1.00 indicates the strongest possible relationship. And,  
once again, we interpret correlations close to zero as representing no relationship between the two variables.  
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Figure 1.11 Interpreting the  
strength of various correlation  
coefficients  
Try This Y ourself T est Y our Understanding of Correlations  
Can you identify whether each of the following pairs most likely has a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
1\.   
Health and exercise  
2\.   
Hours of TV viewing and student grades  
3\.   
Happiness and helpfulness  
4\.   
Hours of sleep and number of friends  
5\.   
Extraversion and loneliness  
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The Limits of Correlations  
Correlations are sometimes misleading, confusing, or not particularly useful. In addition, the observation, recording, and data analyses  
from both descriptive and correlational studies can lead to ethical and legal concerns. For example, surveying or observing survivors  
after a terrorist attack and then using their data to make generalized predictions may lead to further trauma for the victims. Therefore,  
it's very important to note two major cautions concerning correlations.  
1.Correlation does NOTprove causation! Correlational studies can detect whether or not two variables are related. However, they  
cannot tell us which variable is the cause or which is the effect—or whether other known or unknown factors may explain the  
relationship (Figure1.12).  
Figure 1.12 The third-variable problemIce cream consumption and  
drowning are highly correlated. Obviously , eating ice cream doesn't cause  
people to drown. A third factor, high temperatures, increases both ice  
cream consumption and participation in water-based activities.  
Consider this surprising positive correlation: Cities with a higher number of churches have a higher crime rate. Does this mean that  
an increase in churches leads to more crime? Of course not! Instead, a thir d variable(increased population) is the real source of the  
link between more churches and more crime.  
This mistake of confusing correlation with causation is referred to as the third-variable problem, which refers to a situation in which  
a variable that has not been measured accounts for a relationship between two or more other variables. W ould you like a less  
obvious and more commonly confused example? See Figure1.13.  
Figure 1.13 Correlation versus causationResearch has found a  
strong correlation between stress and cancer (Chapter 3). Just  
as we can't tell whether the chicken or the egg came first, the  
correlation in this case does not tell us whether stress causes  
cancer , whether cancer causes stress, or whether other known  
and unknown factors, such as smoking, drinking, or pesticides,  
could contribute to both stress and cancer . Can you think of a  
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way to study the effects of stress on cancer that is not  
correlational—and is still ethical?  
2.Observed correlations are sometimes illusory—meaning they don't exist! In this second problem, there is NO factual, statistical  
connection between two variables—the relationship is the result of random coincidence and/or misperception. Popular beliefs, such  
as that infertile couples often conceive after an adoption, as well as the irrational fears behind certain anxiety disorders, are often  
based on illusory(false) correlations(Brodsky & Gutheil, [1.8]; W iemer & Pauli, [1.96]). Can you see how someone with an  
intense fear of flying might misperceive the odds of crashes based on overly dramatic media reports? If you're confused about the  
differences between the third-variable problem and illusory correlations, see the Study Tip.  
Study Tip  
Note that with thethird-variable problem, an actual correlation does exist between two or more variables, but a third factor might  
be responsible for their connection. In contrast, with anillusory correlation ther e is NO measurable connection between two  
variables—the apparent connection is totally F ALSE.  
Interestingly , superstitions, such as breaking a mirror supposedly leading to seven years of bad luck or sports fans wearing their lucky  
team sports jackets because they believe it will bring the team good luck, are additional examples of illusory correlations. W e  
mistakenly perceive an association that factually does not exist. Unfortunately, these and other well-known superstitions (T able1.6)  
persist despite logical reasoning and scientific evidence to the contrary.  
T able1.6Superstitions as Illusory Correlations  
Behavior Superstition  
Wedding plans: Why do  
brides wear something old  
and something borrowed?  
The something old is usually clothing that belongs to an older woman who is happily  
married. Thus, the bride will supposedly transfer that good fortune to herself. Something  
borrowed is often a relative's jewelry . This item should be golden, because gold  
represents the sun, which was once thought to be the source of life.  
Spilling salt: Why do some  
people throw a pinch of salt  
over their left shoulder?  
Y ears ago, people believed good spirits lived on the right side of the body , and bad spirits  
on the left. If someone spilled salt, it supposedly meant that a guardian spirit had caused  
the accident to warn him or her of evil nearby . At the time, salt was scarce and precious.  
Therefore, the person was advised to bribe the bad spirits with a pinch of salt thrown over  
his or her left shoulder .  
Knocking on wood: Why  
do some people knock on  
wood when they're speaking  
of good fortune or making  
predictions?  
Down through the ages, people have believed that trees were homes of gods, who were  
kind and generous if approached in the right way . A person who wanted to ask a favor of  
the tree god would touch the bark. After the favor was granted, the person would return to  
knock on the tree as a sign of thanks.  
Why are beliefs in illusory correlations so common? As you'll discover in upcoming chapters, we tend to focus on the most noticeable  
(salient) factors when explaining the causes of behavior . Paying undue attention to the dramatic (but very rare) instance when an  
infertile couple conceives after adoption or when a gambler wins a large payout on one specific slot machine is an example of the  
saliency bias(see Chapter 16). In addition to this saliency bias, we also more often note and remember events that confirm our  
expectations and ignore the “misses.” This is known as the confirmation bias.  
The key thing to remember while reading research reports in this or any textbook, or reports in the popular media, is that observed  
correlations may be illusory and that correlational research can NEVER provide a clear cause and effect relationship between variables.  
Always consider that a third factor might be a better explanation for a perceived correlation. To find causation, we need the  
experimental method.  
The V alue of Correlations  
After discussing all the limits of correlational research, we need to emphasize that it's still an incredibly valuable research method,  
offering at least three major contributions:  
1.Prediction A correlation can tell us if a relationship exists between two variables, which allows us to use one variable to predict  
scores on another . Consider a recent study that found a positive correlation between years of education and physical health. This  
correlation means that we can predict that as your educational level increases, your overall health will also increase. In fact, the ageadjusted mortality rate of high school dropouts (ages 25–64) is more than twice that of those with some college (Cutler & Lleras-  
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Muney, [1.24]; Picker , [1.71]). This large and persistent correlation between education and health has been repeatedly observed over  
many years and in many countries. Although there are several possible explanations for this finding, researchers in this area suggest  
the results are most likely due to healthier behaviors among the more highly educated, along with different thinking and decisionmaking patterns. If you'd like to explore how increased education might also affect your overall lifetime income, check out the  
“Media Challenge” for Chapter 1 located within the WileyPlus/Learning Space program.  
2.Real-world settings A second value to correlational studies is that, like descriptive studies, they can be conducted in real-world  
settings that would otherwise be impossible or unethical to study . For example, smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol while  
pregnant are highly correlated with birth defects (Doulatram et al., [1.32]; Mason & Zhou, [1.65]; Roozen et al., [1.80]). Conducting  
experiments on pregnant women would obviously be immoral and illegal. However, evidence from this strong correlation, along  
with other research, has helped convince many women to avoid these drugs while pregnant—likely preventing many birth defects.  
On a lighter note, research described in Chapter 3 reports a long-suspected link between high stress levels and reduced odds of  
conception (Akhter et al., [1.1]). Do you recognize how this type of correlational data offers encouraging news and pleasant options  
for those trying to conceive—like taking a vacation?  
These real-world settings also often have practical applications. For example, many parents and professionals have repeatedly  
expressed concerns about the potential ill effects of Facebook and other social media sites on young people. In fact, a recent study  
compared 12 million Facebook users with nonusers and found that people with moderate levels of online social interaction and high  
levels of offline social interaction actually have a lower short-term mortality risk (Hobbs et al., [1.55]). Research has long showed  
that people who have strong social networks live longer, but this is the first large-scale study showing that online relationships may  
also be good for our mental and physical health. Similarly , correlational findings that drunk driving and distracted driving are highly  
linked with serious and fatal car accidents have led to strict laws that have reduced these practices.  
3.Future research Finally , correlational research, like descriptive studies, offers data and ideas for future research. Even though  
correlation does NOT prove causation, it can point to possiblecausation, which can then be followed up with later experiments—  
the topic of our next section.  
Experimental Research  
As you've just seen, both descriptive and correlational studies are essential because they provide valuable data, insights, and practical  
applications. However, to determine causation(what causes what), we need experimental research. This research method is considered  
the “gold standard” for empirical science because only through an experimentcan researchers manipulate and control variables to  
determine cause and effect (Cohen, [1.21]; Goodwin & Goodwin, [1.50]; Morling, [1.68]).  
T o understand the important key terms and the general setup for an experiment, imagine that you're a psychologist who wants to  
investigate how texting while driving affects the incidence of traffic accidents. T o set up your imaginary experiment, carefully study  
Step-by-Step Diagram1.2. Step 1 begins with the creation of a testable hypothesis, which we defined earlier as a tentative and testable  
explanation (or “educated guess”) about the relationship between two or more variables. As part of this hypothesis, you need to note the  
specific factors (or variables) that will be observed and measured in your potential experiment. Experiments have two kinds of  
variables: independentand dependent. The factor , or variable, you manipulate (or change) is called the independent variable (IV). The  
variable you plan to measure and examine for possible change is known as the dependent variable (DV). In this case, the variable you  
manipulate (the IV) will be texting versus not texting, and the variable you measure for possible change (the DV) will be the number of  
traffic accidents.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 1.2 Experimental research design  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Study Tip  
T o help you remember the independent and dependent variables (IV and DV), note that the IV is called independent because it is  
controlled and manipulated by the experimenter . The DV is called dependent because the behavior (or outcome) exhibited by the  
participants is assumed to depend on manipulations of the IV . Y ou might find it helpful to carefully study these drawings and create a  
visual picture in your own mind of how:  
the experimenter “manipulates” the IV to determine its and then the experimenter “measures” the DV ,  
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causal effect on the DV , which “depends” on the IV .  
When designing an experiment, researchers must follow certain steps to ensure that their results are scientifically meaningful. In this  
example, researchers want to test whether people texting on cell phones while driving have more traffic accidents than those who don't  
text while driving.  
For Step 2, you assign your research participants to either the experimental group, participants who receive the treatment under study ,  
or the control group, participants who do NOT receive the treatment under study . Note that having two groups allows the performance  
of one group to be compared with that of the other . T o minimize potentially critical differences between the two groups, you need to  
randomly assignparticipants to either the experimental group or the control group. Random assignmentrefers to the use of chance  
procedures (such as a coin toss or a random numbers table) to ensure that all participants have an equal opportunity to be in either  
group.  
For Steps 3 and 4, you—the experimenter—will ask all participants to drive for a given amount of time (e.g., 30 minutes) in a driving  
simulator . While they're driving, you will record the number of simulated traffic accidents (the DV). [Note: The goal of any experiment  
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is to learn how the dependent variable is affected by(depends on) the independent variable.]  
During Step 5, you'll compare the results from both groups and report your findings to a peer-reviewed scientific journal like the ones  
found in the References section provided with this text. Keep in mind that because the control group was treated exactly like the  
experimental group, except for the IV , any significant difference in the number of traffic accidents (the DV) between the two groups  
would be the result of the IV . In contrast, if you found little or no difference between the groups, you would conclude that texting does  
not affect traffic accidents.  
Before going on, note that actual research does find that cell phone use, particularly texting, while driving definitely leads to increased  
accidents and potentially serious or fatal consequences (e.g., Carney et al., [1.17]; Y annis et al., [1.102]). In other words: “Let's all just  
put down the phone and drive.”  
Research Problems and Safeguards  
As you've seen, descriptive, correlational, and experimental research methods all have serious limits and potential biases. To offset  
these problems, researchers must establish several safeguards to protect against potential sources of error from both the researcher and  
the participant.  
Potential Researcher Issues  
Let's start with sample bias, which occurs when the researcher recruits and/or selects participants who do not accurately reflect the  
composition of the larger population from which they are drawn. For example, some critics suggest that psychological literature is  
biased because it too often uses college students as participants. W e can counteract potential sample bias by selecting participants who  
constitute a representative sampleof the entire population of interest.  
It's also critical to control for extraneous, confounding variables(such as time of day , lighting conditions, and room temperature). These  
variables must be held constant across both the experimental and control groups. Otherwise, if not controlled, these variables might  
confuse, or confound, the effects of the independent variable (IV)—thereby contaminating your research results ( Figure1.14). As  
discussed earlier, random assignmentalso helps control for confounding variables (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Figure 1.14 Controlling for confounding variablesRecognizing that certain outside  
variables may affect their experimental findings, researchers strive for balance between the  
experimental and control groups, making sure the variables are the same for both. Once  
balance is achieved, and the independent variable (IV) is added to the experimental group,  
the experimenters check to see if the scale's balance is significantly disrupted. If so, they  
can then say that the IV causedthe change. However , if the IV is not “heavy” enough to  
make a significant difference, then the experiment “failed,” and experimenters go back to  
further refine their approach, start over , or go on to a new project.  
Try This Y ourself Understanding Random Assignment and Confounding V ariables  
Have you wondered if the decoration and overall ambiance of a restaurant could affect your eating behavior? T o answer this question, a  
group of researchers modified the environment in one section of a fast food restaurant by dimming the lights and adding relaxing music,  
plants, candles, and tablecloths. They then randomly assigned customers to sit in either the original section of the restaurant or this new  
section (W ansink & V an Ittersum, [1.93]). All participants freely ordered whatever food they preferred, but those in the more relaxing  
part of the restaurant took longer to eat their meal and ate 18% fewer calories.  
Can you see how the random assignmentof the customers controlled for any potential confounding variables? All participants freely  
entered the same restaurant, and each individual was equally likely to be assigned to either section in the restaurant. Thanks to these  
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controls, the researchers can legitimately conclude that the independent variable(IV) (relaxing versus standard restaurant condition)  
caused the change in the dependent variables(DVs) (time spent eating and number of calories consumed).  
As a critical thinker, do you recognize how confounding variables in an experiment are essentially the same as the third-variable  
problem associated with correlational research? Whenever we observe a relationship between variables, we need to recognize the  
possibility that an unwanted, third variable might have affected (confounded) the results.  
In addition, if experimenters' beliefs and expectations are not controlled for, they can affect participants' responses, producing flawed  
results. Imagine what might happen if an experimenter breathed a sigh of relief when a participant gave a response that supported the  
researcher's hypothesis. A good example of this comes from the case of Clever Hans, the famous mathematical “wonder horse” (Figure  
1.15). One way to prevent such experimenter biasfrom destroying the validity of participants' responses is to establish objective  
methods for collecting and recording data, such as using “blind” observers with no direct connection to the research and/or computers  
to present stimuli and record responses.  
Figure 1.15 Can a horse add, multiply ,  
and divide?Clever Hans and his owner,  
Mr. V on Osten, convinced many people  
that this was indeed the case  
(Rosenthal, [1.81]). When asked to  
multiply 6 times 8, minus 42, Hans  
would tap his hoof 6 times. Or if asked  
to divide 48 by 12, add 6, and take  
away 6, he would tap 4 times. Even  
when Hans's owner was out of the  
room and others asked the question, he  
was still able to answer correctly. How  
did he do it? Researchers eventually  
discovered that all questioners  
naturally lowered their heads to look at  
Hans's hoof at the end of their  
question. And Hans had learned that  
this was a signal to start tapping. When  
the correct answer was approaching,  
the questioners also naturally looked  
up, which signaled Hans to stop. Do  
you see how this provided an early  
example of experimenter bias?  
Experimenters also can skew their results if they assume that behaviors typical in their own culture are typical in all cultures—a bias  
known as ethnocentrism. One way to avoid this problem is to have researchers from two cultures each conduct the same study twice,  
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once with their own culture and once with at least one other culture. This kind of cr oss-cultural samplingisolates group differences in  
behavior that might stem from any researcher's ethnocentrism.  
Potential Participant Issues  
W e've seen that researchers can inadvertently introduce error (the experimenter bias). Unfortunately, participants can produce a similar  
error , called participant bias. For example, researchers often use surveys as their main research method or as part of an experiment.  
And, as you might expect, when participants are asked to self-report on sensitive topics, such as their sexual behaviors or drug and  
alcohol consumption, they often attempt to present themselves in a favorable way, rather than giving true accounts. This tendency to  
over-report “good behaviors” and to under-report “bad behaviors” is aptly named the social desirabilityresponse (see the following  
Research Challenge).  
Research Challenge Why Do Men and W omen Lie About Sex?  
The social desirability biasis of particular concern when we study sexual behaviors. A fascinating example comes from a study that  
asked college students to complete a questionnaire regarding how often they engaged in 124 different gender-typical behaviors (Fisher ,  
[1.42]). Some of these behaviors were considered more typical of men (such as wearing dirty clothes and telling obscene jokes),  
whereas other behaviors were more common among women (such as writing poetry and lying about their weight). Half of the  
participants completed these questionnaires while attached to what they were told was a polygraph machine (or lie detector), although  
in reality this machine was not working. The other half completed the questionnaires without being attached to such a machine.  
Can you predict how students' answers differed as a function of their gender and whether they were (or were NOT) attached to the  
supposed lie detector? Among those who were attached to a supposed lie detector and who believed that it could reliably detect their  
lies, men were more likely to admit that they sometimes engaged in behaviors seen as more appropriate for women, such as writing  
poetry . In contrast, women were more likely to admit that they sometimes engaged in behaviors judged more appropriate for men, such  
as telling obscene jokes. Even more interesting, men reported having had more sexual partners when they weren't hooked up to the lie  
detector than when they were. The reverse was true for women! They reported fewer partners when they were not hooked up to the lie  
detector than when they were.  
How does the social desirability responsehelp explain these differences? W e're all socialized from birth to conform to norms (unwritten  
rules) for our culturally approved male and female behaviors. Therefore, participants who were NOT attached to the supposed lie  
detector provided more “gender appropriate” responses. Men admitted telling obscene jokes and reported having more sexual partners,  
whereas women admitted lying about their weight and reported having fewer sexual partners.  
These findings were virtually reversed when participants believed they were connected to a machine that could detect their lies. This  
fact provides a strong example of the dangers of the social desirability response. It also reminds us, as either researchers or consumers,  
to be very careful when interpreting findings regarding sexual attitudes and behaviors. Gender roles may lead to inaccurate reporting  
and exaggerated gender differences.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Fisher, [1.42]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
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2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly  
assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most  
textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will  
help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Additional Research Safeguards  
Scientists attempting to minimize both experimenter and participant bias often use single-blindand double-blind studies. As you can  
see in Figure1.16, this approach requires that participants, and sometimes also experimenters, be unaware of (or “blind” to) the  
treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned.  
Figure 1.16 A single- or double-blind experimental designIn an  
experiment to test a new drug, the participants taking the drug, and  
possibly the researchers as well, must be unaware of (or “blind” to)  
who is receiving a placebo(a fake pill) and who is receiving the drug  
itself. This is necessary because researchers know that participants'  
beliefs and expectations can change their responses and the  
experimental outcome—the so-called “placebo effect” (Brown, [1.10];  
Draganich & Erdal, [1.33]).  
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Imagine you are in an eight-week experiment and are told that you will be taking a pill that will stop your headaches. Can you see how  
it's critical that you, as a participant, and possibly the experimenter who collects your data, should be blind as to whether you are in the  
control or experimental group? In this example, that means you won't know if you are being given the actual experimental drug or a  
harmless placebopill that has no physiological effect. Researchers do this because your expectations or beliefs, rather than the  
experimental treatment, can produce a particular outcome, called a placebo effect. Giving members of the control group a placebo,  
while giving the experimental group a pill with the active ingredients, allows researchers to determine whether changes are due to the  
pill that's being tested or simply to the participants' expectations.  
Also, as you discovered in the previous section on ethical guidelines, researchers attempt to control for participant bias by offering  
anonymous participation, along with guarantees of privacy and confidentiality . In addition, one of the most effective (and controversial)  
ways of preventing participant bias is to temporarily deceive participants about the true nature of the research project. For example, in  
studies examining when and how people help others, participants may not be told the true goal of the study because they might try to  
present themselves as more helpful than they actually would be in real life—another example of the social desirability response.  
Quasi-Experimental Designs  
Given the numerous limits and problems with the experimental method we've just described, some researchers turn to alternative  
methods called quasi-experimental designs. The prefix quasi- means “sort of,” and in this case the research looks “sort of” like a true  
experiment. But it lacks a key ingredient—random assignment to gr oups—because in many situations random assignment is impossible  
or unethical. For example, imagine that you wanted to study how a father's later attachment to his child was affected by his presence or  
absence at that child's birth. Y ou obviously can't randomly assign fathers to either the present-at-birth condition or the absent-at-birth  
condition. Recognizing that assessing the differences between the two groups still might provide important information, experimenters  
can compare the two groups without random assignment, and it would then be officially called a quasi-experimental design. Why can't  
quasi-experimental designs make the same strong claims for causation that could be made based on true experiments? Without random  
assignment, uncontrolled third variables might skew the results.  
T ake-Home Message  
W e've just presented a large number of research problems and safeguards associated with the various research methods (descriptive,  
correlational, and experimental), and we've gathered them all into Figure1.17. Be sure to study it carefully .  
Figure 1.17 Potential research problems and solutions  
Given all these problems, should we simply pack our bags and go home? Of course not! Psychological research does have its limits, but  
having a general understanding of research methods will help guide you through the often conflicting claims made in newspapers, in  
television ads, and by our friends and neighbors. Research findings have also offered solutions to practical problems, led us to  
significant improvements in our personal and interpersonal lives, and provided invaluable guidelines that will help us make more  
informed decisions. If you'd like further information about research methods and statistical analyses, see Appendix A.  
Try This Y ourself W ant to Be a Better Consumer of Scientific Research?  
The news media, advertisers, politicians, teachers, close friends, and other individuals frequently use research findings in their attempts  
to change your attitudes and behavior . How can you tell whether their information is accurate and worthwhile? The previous discussion  
of psychological research methods will help you identify the primary problem with each of the following sample research reports:  
•CC = Report is misleading because correlation data are used to suggest causation.  
•CG = Report is inconclusive because there was no control group.  
•EB = Results of the research were unfairly influenced by experimenter bias.  
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•SB = Results of the research are questionable because of sample bias.  
________1.   
A clinical psychologist strongly believes that touching is a valuable adjunct to successful therapy. For two months, he touches half his  
patients (group A) and refrains from touching the other half (group B). He then reports a noticeable improvement in group A.  
________2.   
A newspaper reports that violent crime corresponds to phases of the moon. The reporter concludes that the gravitational pull of the  
moon controls human behavior.  
________3.   
A researcher interested in women's attitudes toward premarital sex sends out a lengthy survey to subscribers of V ogueand  
Cosmopolitanmagazines.  
________4.   
An experimenter is interested in studying the effects of alcohol on driving ability . Before being tested on an experimental driving  
course, group A consumes 2 ounces of alcohol, group B consumes 4 ounces of alcohol, and group C consumes 6 ounces of alcohol.  
After the test drive, the researcher reports that alcohol consumption adversely affects driving ability .  
________5.   
After reading a scientific journal that reports higher divorce rates among couples living together before marriage, a college student  
decides to move out of the apartment she shares with her boyfriend.  
________6.   
A theater owner reports increased beverage sales following the brief flashing of a subliminal message to “Drink Coca-Cola” during the  
film showing.  
Retrieval Practice 1.3 Research Methods  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Researchers using the case study approach are most likely to ________.  
a. interview many research participants who have a single problem or disorder  
b. conduct an in-depth study of a single research participant  
c. choose and investigate a single topic  
d. use any of these options, which describe different types of case studies  
2\.   
When a researcher observes or measures two or more variables to find relationships between them, without directly manipulating them  
or implying a causal relationship, he or she is conducting ________.  
a. experimental research  
b. a correlational study  
c. non-causal metrics  
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d. a meta-analysis  
3\.   
Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest relationship?  
a. +.43  
b. −.64  
c. −.72  
d. .00  
4\.   
If researchers gave participants varying amounts of a new memory drug and then gave them a story to read and measured their scores  
on a quiz, the ________would be the IV , and the ________would be the DV .  
a. response to the drug; amount of the drug  
b. experimental group; control group  
c. amount of the drug; quiz scores  
d. researcher variables; extraneous variables  
5\.   
When both the researcher and the participants are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group, the research design can be  
called ________.  
a. reliable  
b. double-blind  
c. valid  
d. deceptive  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
1\.   
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), you'll learn about the structures and functions of the nervous system and the  
brain. Using the terms naturalistic observation, case study , corr elational research, and experiment(from this chapter), describe how  
scientists could use each of these different research methods to study the brain.  
2\.   
In Chapter 3 (Stress and Health Psychology), you'll discover what scientists have learned about an experience common to us all: stress.  
Think about a stressor in your life. Using psychology's four main goals, describeyour stressor, explainhow it affects you, predictwhen  
and how it might affect you in the future, and discuss what you can do to changeit.  
.  
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Print this page  
1.4 T ools for Student Success  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the key strategies for student success.  
•Describethe four steps important to improving your study habits.  
•Discussways to improve your time management.  
•Identifythe key factors in grade improvement.  
•Summarizewhy attitude adjustment is key to student success.  
Study Tip T ools for Student Success  
This special section includes tips for success in this and all your other college courses. In addition, watch for these “Study Tip”  
boxes throughout this text.  
In this section, you will find several well-documented tools and techniques guaranteed to make you a more efficient and  
successful college student In fact, a recent experiment with randomly assigned college students found that the group of students  
who were asked to self-reflect and to identify and use learning resources wisely improved their class performance by an  
average of one-third of a letter grade compared to the group that did not self-reflect (Chen et al., [1.19]). For an example of this  
type of self-reflection, and an overview of the major topics in this section, be sure to complete the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Skills for Student Success Checklist  
Answer true or false to each item. Then, for each item that you answered “True,” pay particular attention to the corresponding  
headings in this T ools for Student Successsection.  
Study Habits  
________1.   
While reading, I often get lost in all the details and can't pick out the most important points.  
________2.   
When I finish studying a chapter, I frequently can't remember what I've just read.  
________3.   
I generally study with either the TV or music playing in the background.  
________4.   
I tend to read each section of a chapter at the same speed, instead of slowing down on the difficult sections.  
Time Management  
________5.   
I can't keep up with my reading assignments given all the other demands on my time.  
________6.   
I typically wait to study and then “cram” right before a test.  
________7.   
I go to almost all my classes, but I generally don't take notes, and I often find myself texting, playing games on my computer, or  
daydreaming.  
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Grade Improvement  
________8.   
I study and read ahead of time, but during a test I frequently find that my mind goes blank.  
________9.   
Although I study and read before tests, and think I'll do well, I often find that the exam questions are much harder than I  
expected.  
________10.   
I wish I could perform better on tests and could read faster or more efficiently .  
Attitude Adjustment  
________11.   
Going to class is a waste of time.  
________12.   
I just can't do well on tests.  
Study Habits  
If you sometimes read a paragraph many times, yet remember nothing from it, try these four ways to successfully read (and  
remember) information in this and most other texts:  
1.Familiarization The first step to good study habits is to familiarize yourself with the general text so that you can take full  
advantage of its contents. Scanning through the T able of Contents will help give you a bird's-eye view of the overall text. In  
addition, as you're familiarizing yourself with these features, be sure to also note the various tables, figures, photographs,  
and special feature boxes, all of which will enhance your understanding of the subject.  
2.Active Reading The next step is to make a conscious decision to activelyread and learn the material (Putnam et al.,  
[1.74]). Reading a text is notlike reading a novel or fun articles on the Internet! Y ou must tell your brain to slow down,  
focus on details, and save the material for future recall (see the following Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Demonstrating the Importance of Active Reading  
(a) Using a stopwatch, test to see how fast you can name the color of each rectangular box.  
(b) Now , time yourself to see how fast you can state the color of ink used to print each word, ignoring what each word says.  
How did you do? Interestingly , young children who have learned their colors, but have not yet learned to read, easily name  
the colors in both sections in about the same amount of time. However, virtually every adult takes more time, and makes  
more errors, on (b) than on (a). This is because, over time, our well-learned ability to read words overrides the less common  
task of naming the colors. W e include this demonstration, known as the Stroop effect, here because it helps illustrate the  
importance of active reading. If you passively read a chapter in a text once, or even several times, you'll still do poorly on  
an exam. Just as it takes more time to state the color in part (b), it will take you more time to override your well-learned  
passive reading and focus on the details to truly learn and master the material.  
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Note taking while reading is one of the most effective ways to actively read. Ask yourself, “What is the main idea?” Then  
write down key ideas and supporting details and examples. Another way to read actively is to use the SQ4R method, which  
was developed by Francis Robinson ([1.78]). The initials stand for six steps in effective reading: Survey , Question, Read,  
Recite, Review , and wRite. As you might have guessed, this text was designed to incorporate each of these steps ( Step-byStep Diagram1.3).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 1.3 Using the SQ4R MethodFollow these steps to  
impr ove your r eading efficiency .  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on  
quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
3.A void highlighting and rereading Marking with a yellow highlighter or underlining key points, as well as rereading text  
material after initial reading, are common techniques students use while studying. Unfortunately, they're essentially a waste  
of time! Research clearly shows that highlighting and rereading are among the LEAST effective of all the major study  
techniques, whereas distributed practiceand practice testing(explained later in the grade improvement section) are the  
MOST effective (Dunlosky et al., [1.34]). As previously discussed, you need to actively focus on your reading.  
Highlighting and rereading generally encourage passive reading.  
4.Overlearn Many students tend to study new material just to the point where they can recite the information, but they do  
not attempt to understand it more deeply . For best results, however , you should overlearn. In other words, be sure you fully  
understand how key terms and concepts are related to one another and can generate examples other than the ones in the text.  
In addition, you should repeatedly review the material (by visualizing the phenomena that are described and explained in  
the text and by rehearsing what you have learned) until the information is firmly locked in place. This is particularly  
important if you suffer from test anxiety . W ould you like a quick demonstration of why we sometimes need to overlearn?  
See the following Try This Y ourself.  
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Try This Y ourself Demonstrating the Importance of Overlearning  
Can you identify which one of these 10 pennies is an exact duplicate of a real U.S. penny? Unless you're a coin collector, you  
probably can't easily choose the correct one without comparing it to a real coin—despite having seen thousands of pennies.  
Why? As you will discover later in the text (Chapter 7), you must encode (or process) the information in some way before it  
will be successfully stored in your long-term memory. Most of us don't need to carefully study and overlearn the details of what  
a penny looks like, because we can function in our everyday world with a superficial glance at the coin. So why are we  
providing this demo? The point is that if you're going to take a test on pennies, or any material, you need to carefully study to  
the point of overlearning in order to do well.  
Time Management  
If you find that you can't always strike a good balance between work, study , and social activities, or that you aren't always good  
at budgeting your time, here are four basic time-management strategies:  
•Establish a baseline. Before attempting any changes, simply record your day-to-day activities for one to two weeks (see the  
sample in Figure1.18). Y ou may be surprised at how you spend your time.  
Figure 1.18 Sample record of daily activitiesT o help manage your time, draw a grid  
similar to this, and record your daily activities in appropriate boxes. Then fill in  
other necessities, such as daily maintenance tasks and “downtime.”  
•Set up a realistic schedule. Make a daily and weekly “to do” list, including all required activities, basic maintenance tasks  
(like laundry , cooking, child care, and eating), and a reasonable amount of down time. Then create a daily schedule of  
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activities that includes time for each of these. T o make permanent time-management changes, shape your behavior, starting  
with small changes and building on them.  
•Reward yourself. Give yourself immediate, tangible rewards for sticking with your daily schedule, such as calling a friend,  
getting a snack, or checking social media.  
•Maximize your time. T o increase your efficiency , begin by paying close attention to the amount of time you spend on true,  
focused studying versus the time you waste worrying, complaining, and/or fiddling around getting ready to study (“fretting  
and prepping”).  
Time experts also point out that people often overlook significant time opportunities—spare moments that normally go to waste  
that you might use productively . When you use public transportation, review your notes or read your textbook. While waiting  
for doctor or dental appointments, or to pick up your kids after school, take out your text and study for 10 to 20 minutes.  
Hidden moments count!  
Grade Improvement  
Here are five essential tools for grade improvement and overall test-taking skills. Each of these strategies will have a direct  
impact on your overall grade point average (GP A) in all your college classes, as well as your mastery of the material. However,  
research has clearly shown that the last two techniques—distributed practiceand practice testing—are the MOST important  
keys to grade improvement.  
1.Maximize each class session. As you know , the authors of this text are all college professors, and this advice may sound  
biased. However, solid psychological research (Putnam et al., [1.74]) recommends that all students should:  
•Prepare ahead of time. Be sure to study the assigned material ahead of each class.  
•Attend every class. Most instructors teach many ideas and offer personal examples that are not in the text. And even if  
they do repeat what is covered in the text, we all need to have multiple exposures to new material. Think of your  
professor's lecture as if your employer is going out of his or her way to tell you what you need to know to maximize  
your paycheck or to advance in the company (see the Study Tip).  
Study Tip Is Class Attendance a W aste of Time?  
Unfortunately , some students believe this to be true. They think they can pass college courses by simply doing the basic  
assignments, taking exams, and/or making up lost points with extra credit. While some college professors may not  
notice or penalize you for missing class, they often do test over material covered in their lectures. Similarly, many  
professors don't assign homework or offer extra credit. They assume students are independent, self-motivated adult  
learners and that grades for their course should reflect each student's knowledge and performance, which is typically  
measured by scores on quizzes and exams.  
•Stay focused. Students often mistakenly believe that they can absorb information, and do well on exams, by simply  
going to class. Paying full attention by taking detailed notes by hand versus a laptop (Mueller & Oppenheimer, [1.69])  
during each class session is one of the most efficient and profitable uses of your time.  
In contrast, casually listening to the professor, while also texting, playing computer games, or talking to other  
classmates, is largely a waste of time. In fact, a recent study in an introductory psychology class found that Internet use  
during lectures was negatively correlatedwith student performance, which as you know means that as Internet usage  
went up performance went down (Ravizza et al., [1.76]). A good rule to remember is that one hour of full attention in  
class is generally worth about four hours on your own. Why? Professors generally lecture on what they consider most  
difficult or valuable, and this material more often appears on exams!  
2.Improve your test-taking skills. Expect a bit of stress but don't panic. Pace yourself but don't rush. Focus on what you  
know . Skip over questions when you don't know the answers, and then go back if time allows. On multiple-choice exams,  
carefully read each question, and all the alternative answers, before responding. Answer all questions and make sure you  
have recorded your answers correctly .  
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Also, bear in mind that information relevant to one question is often found in another test question. Do not hesitate to  
change an answer if you get more information—or even if you simply have a better guess about an answer. Contrary to the  
popular myth widely held by many students (and faculty) that “your first hunch is your best guess,” research suggests this is  
NOT the case (Benjamin et al., [1.6]; Lilienfeld et al., [1.60], [1.59]). Changing answers is far more likely to result in a  
higher score (Figure1.19).  
Figure 1.19 Should you change your  
answers?Y es! Research clearly shows  
that answer changes that go from a  
wrong to a right answer (57.8 percent)  
greatly outnumber those that go from a  
right to a wrong answer (20.2 percent).  
Source: Benjamin et al., [1.6].  
3.T ake study skills courses. Improve your reading speed and comprehension, and your word-processing/typing skills, by  
taking additional courses designed to develop these specific abilities. In addition, instructors, roommates, classmates,  
friends, and family members can often provide useful tips and encouragement.  
4.Distribute your practice. Spreading your study sessions out over time (distributed practice) is far more efficient than  
waiting until right before an exam and cramming in all the information at once (massed practice) (Chapter 7). If you were a  
basketball player, you wouldn't wait until the night before a big play-off game to practice. The same is true for exam  
preparation. Keep in mind that distributed practice is NOT simply rereading the chapter several times over a few days. As  
mentioned earlier, you need to actively focus and study what you're reading.  
5.Practice your test taking. For most of us, taking tests is NOT one of our favorite activities. However, it's important to note  
that, as we have mentioned several times, research has clearly shown that practice test taking and distributed practice are  
two of the most efficient ways to study and learn—and thereby improve your exam performance (Carpenter & Y eung,  
[1.18]; Putnam et al., [1.74]; Trumbo et al., [1.90]). Just as you need to repeatedly practice your free-throw shot to become a  
good basketball player, you need to repeatedly practice your test-taking skills.  
If you can easily see how distributing your practice and practice testing apply to sports but have trouble seeing their value in  
academics, consider this study conducted in actual introduction to psychology courses. Researchers (who were psych professors  
doing this study in their own classes) compared students who took brief, multiple-choice quizzes at the start of each class,  
which made up the bulk of their final grade, to those in a typical class with final grades based entirely on four big exams  
(Pennebaker et al., [1.70]). The researchers found that this type of frequent testing led to higher grades (on average a half a  
letter grade increase) not only in this psychology class, but also in the students' subsequent college classes. Beyond the value of  
practice testing itself, how would you explain this grade increase? Students in the daily quiz condition showed higher class  
attendance, which included lectures over the material included on quizzes and exams. In addition, the researchers discovered  
that frequent testing required students to diligently keep up with the material, which led to better study skills and time  
management.  
Based on this growing body of research, and our own teaching success with frequent testing, we've designed this text to include  
numerous opportunities for practice testing sprinkled throughout each chapter. As you're actively reading and studying each  
chapter , be sure to complete all these self-tests. When you miss a question, try to immediately go back and reread the sections  
of the text that correspond to your incorrect response. Y ou also can easily access the free flashcards and other forms of selftesting in your W ileyPlus/Learning Space course.  
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Attitude Adjustment  
As you recall, psychology has four major goals—to describe, explain, predict, and changebehavior and mental processes.  
Regarding the goal of change, we included a joke—“How many psychologists does it take to change a light bulb?” The answer  
was “none,” because the light bulb has to want to change itself. Although it's an admittedly corny joke, it still reflects an  
essential truth—change comes from within. W e're all heavily influenced by interacting biological, psychological, and social  
forces (the biopsychosocial model), but if we want to change things (like becoming a more successful student), psychological  
forces are where we have the greatest personal control.  
Can you see, then, why attitude adjustmentis so important? Y ou have the power to decide that you can, and will, improve your  
academic skills! Instead of focusing on negative thoughts like, “I can't go to the party because I have to study,” or , “Going to  
class feels like a waste of time,” try counter statements such as, “I'm going to learn how to study and make better use of my  
class time, so that I can have more free time.” Similarly , rather than thinking or saying, “I never do well on tests,” do something  
constructive like taking study skills and/or test preparation courses at your college.  
I hope the millions of people I've touched have the optimism and desire to shar e their goals and hard work and persevere with a  
positive attitude.  
—Michael Jordan  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success Why Are a Growth Mindset and Grit  
Important?  
If you'd like more evidence concerning the power of personal attitudes, think back to our opening story of Michael Jordan. How  
would you explain his personal life success? Some might say that he was just lucky, that he had devoted parents, or that he  
inherited great natural talent. While all of this is true, psychologists have discovered that a growth mindsetand gritare  
generally the most significant factors in success in both work and academic settings (Datu et al., [1.26]; Dweck, [1.35], [1.36];  
Y eager et al., [1.103]). Why? People with a growth mindsetbelieve their abilities, talents, and even intelligence can change and  
grow through their own effort. In contrast, those with a fixed mindsetbelieve the opposite—that these same traits are fixed and  
set in stone! As you can see in Figure1.20, having a growth mindset leads to higher achievement as a result of an individual's  
attitude and response to challenges, obstacles, effort, criticism, and the success of others.  
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Figure 1.20 Dweck's growth mindset versus fixed mindsetDo you see how a growth mindset is basically just  
having a “can do” attitude?  
In addition to a growth mindset, having a history of grit(which includes both perseverance and passion in the pursuit of longterm goals) sets most high achievers apart from the competition. Psychologist Carol Dweck says Jordan is “perhaps the hardest  
working athletein the history of sport. If anyone has reason to think of himself as special, it's he.” But, Dweck writes, “Jordan  
knew how hard he had worked to develop his abilities. He was a person who had struggled and grown, not a person who was  
inherently better than others.” Through hard work and determination, Michael Jordan just “stretched” himself beyond the  
competition.  
Bear in mind that no one is born with a growth mindset and grit. Y ou can decide to develop and perfect these skills on your  
own. As the study of psychology teaches us, humans have a great capacity to change, adapt, and grow. That's why we include  
an inspiring story of success, like that of Michael Jordan, at the start of each chapter. Research shows that such stories and even  
just talking to friends and mentors about what they had to do to succeed helps increase our own growth mindset and grit. W e  
also include this special “T ools for Student Success” section at the end of this first chapter because we want to share the best  
tips from psychology to improve your academic success in this and all your college courses. Throughout this text, we'll also  
share psychology's exciting discoveries about achievement in all parts of your life. Stay tuned!  
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Retrieval Practice 1.4 T ools for Student Success  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by  
looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Which of the following is NOT one of the recommended study habits?  
a. active reading  
b. familiarization  
c. highlighting  
d. note taking  
2\.   
List the six steps in the SQ4R method.  
3\.   
One of the clearest findings in psychology is that ________practice is a much more efficient way to study and learn than  
________practice.  
a. spaced (distributed); massed  
b. active; passive  
c. applied; basic  
d. none of these options  
4\.   
________is particularly important if you suffer from test anxiety .  
a. Overlearning  
b. Hyper-soma control  
c. Active studying  
d. Passive listening  
5\.   
Research suggests that ________might be two of the most efficient ways to study and thereby improve your grades.  
a. highlighting and rereading  
b. personal control and better time management  
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c. active studying and the SQ4R method  
d. distributed practice and practice testing  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 6 (Learning), you'll explore how almost all significant human behavior is learned. Explain how the common  
experience of test anxiety might be learned.


	2. Chapter 2

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2.1 Neural and Hormonal Processes  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Describe the key features and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems.  
•Describethe neuron's key components and their respective functions.  
•Explainhow neurons communicate throughout the body .  
•Describethe roles of hormones and the endocrine system.  
Stop for a moment and consider your full human body . Did you know that your brain and nervous system are responsible for receiving, transmitting, and  
interpreting all the sensory information from your internal and the external environment? Are you surprised to learn that your body is composed of about 10  
trillion cells divided into about 200 different types—muscle cells, heart cells, etc.? For psychologists, the microscopic nerve cells, called neurons, are the key  
figures because they are essential to understanding who we are as individuals and how we behave. In other words, our every thought, mood, or action is a  
biological experience. T o fully appreciate these neural bases of behavior, we must start with the neuron.  
Understanding the Neuron  
Each neuron is a tiny information-processing system with thousands of connections for receiving and sending electrochemical signals to other neurons. Each  
human body may have as many as 1 trillionneurons.  
Neurons are held in place and supported by glial cells, which make up about 90% of the brain's total cells. Glial cells also supply nutrients and oxygen, perform  
cleanup tasks, and insulate one neuron from another so that their neural messages are not scrambled. In addition, they play a direct role in nervous system  
communication and our immune system (Dan, [2.14]; Eyo et al., [2.23]; Sénécal et al., [2.78]). In short, our neurons simply could not function without glial  
cells. However, the “star” of the communication show is still the neuron.  
Note that there are different types of neurons, but they generally share three basic features: dendrites, the cell body, and an axon(Figure2.1). Dendriteslook  
like leafless branches of a tree. In fact, the word dendritemeans “little tree” in Greek. Each neuron may have hundreds or thousands of dendrites, which act like  
antennas to receive electrochemical information from other nearby neurons. The information then flows into the cell body, or soma(Greek for “body”). If the  
cell body receives enough information/stimulation from its dendrites, it will pass the message on to a long, tube-like structure, called the axon(from the Greek  
word for “axle”). The axon then carries information away from the cell body to the terminal buttons.  
Study Tip  
T o remember the three key parts of a neuron, picture your hand and arm as:  
T o understand how information travels through the neuron, think of the three key parts in reverse alphabetical order: Dendrite → Cell Body → Axon (D, C, B,  
A).  
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Figure 2.1 Key parts and functions of a neuronRed arrows in the figure on the left indicate direction of information flow:  
dendrites → cell body → axon → terminal buttons of axon.  
The myelin sheath, a white, fatty coating around the axons of some neurons, is not considered one of the three key features of a neuron, but it plays the  
essential roles of insulating and speeding neural impulses. As you'll discover in the next section, our human body is essentially an information-processing  
system dependent upon electrical impulses and chemical messengers. Just as the wires in data cables are insulated from one another by plastic, the myelin  
sheath provides insulation and separation for the numerous axons that travel throughout our bodies. And just as the data cable wires are bundled together into  
larger cables, our myelin-coated axons are bundled together into “cables” called nerves.  
The importance of myelin sheaths becomes readily apparent in certain diseases, such as multiple sclerosis,in which myelin progressively deteriorates and the  
person gradually loses muscular coordination. Although the disease often goes into remission, it can be fatal if it strikes the neurons that control basic lifesupport processes, such as breathing or heartbeat. Myelin is also critical in the first few weeks and months of life. Research shows that social isolation during  
these critical periods (as occurs for babies who are neglected in some orphanages) prevents cells from producing the right amount of myelin. Sadly, this loss of  
normal levels of myelin leads to long-term problems in cognitive functioning (Makinodan et al., [2.55]).  
Having described the structure, function, and importance of the neuron itself, we also need to explain that we have two general types of neurons—sensory and  
motor. Our sensory neur onsrespond to physical stimuli by sending neural messages to our brains and nervous systems. In contrast, our motor neuronsrespond  
to sensory neurons by transmitting signals that activate our muscles and glands. For example, light and sound waves from the text messages that we receive on  
our cell phones are picked up by our sensory neurons, whereas our motor neurons allow our fingers to almost instantaneously type reply messages.  
Communication Within the Neuron  
As we've just seen, the basic function of our neurons is to transmit information throughout the nervous system. But exactly how do they do it? Neurons “speak”  
in a type of electrical and chemical language. The communication begins within the neuron itself, when the dendrites and cell body receive electrical signals  
from our senses (sight, sound, touch) or from chemical messages from other nearby neurons. If the message is sufficiently strong, it will instruct the neuron to  
“fire”—to transmit information to other neurons. As you can see in Step-by-Step Diagram2.1, this type of electrical communication is admittedly somewhat  
confusing. Therefore, we'll also briefly explain it here in narrative form:  
Step 1 Neurons are normally at rest and ready to be activated, which explains why this resting stage is called the “resting potential.”  
Step 2 If a resting neuron receives a combined signal (from the senses or other neurons) that exceeds the minimum threshold, it will be activated and “fire,”  
thus transmitting an electrical impulse (called an action potential). (Note that in Step-by-Step Diagram 2.1, we're only demonstrating how an action  
potential “fires”—also known as “excitation.” However, this resting neuron also receives simultaneous messages telling it NOT to fire—a process called  
“inhibition.” Given these contradictory messages, the neuron does something simple—it goes with the majority! If it receives more excitatory messages  
than inhibitory , it fires—and vice versa.)  
Step 3 The beginning action potential then spreads and travels down the axon. As the action potential moves toward the terminal buttons, the areas on the  
axon left behind return to their resting state. Note that this firing of an action potential is similar to a light switch, where once you apply the minimum  
amount of pressure needed to flip the switch, the light comes on. There is no “partial firing” of a neuron. It's either on or off. This neural reaction of firing  
either with a full-strength response or not at all is known as the all-or-nothing principle. But if this is true, how do we detect the intensity of a stimulus, such  
as the difference between a rock and a butterfly landing on our hand? A strong stimulus (like the rock) causes more neurons to fire and to fire more often  
than does a butterfly .  
Now that we understand how communication occurs within the neuron, we need to explain how it works between neurons.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 2.1 Communication Within the Neuron  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
The process of neural communication begins within the neuron itself, when the dendrites and cell body receive information and conduct it toward the axon.  
From there, the information moves down the entire length of the axon via a brief, traveling electrical charge called an action potential, which can be described  
in the following three steps:  
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Communication Between Neurons  
As you discovered in Step-by-Step Diagram 2.1, neural transmission (via action potentials) within the neuron can be compared to a crowd's behavior doing the  
“wave” in a stadium. The analogy helps explain how the action potential travels down the axon in a “wave-like” motion. However, the comparison breaks  
down when we want to know how the message moves from one neuron to another—or how the “wave” in a stadium gets across the aisles. The answer is that  
within the neuron, messages travel electrically, whereas between neurons the messages are carried across the synapsevia chemicals called neurotransmitters—  
see Step-by-Step Diagram2.2.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 2.2 Communication Between Neurons  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
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Within the neuron, messages travel electrically (see Step-by-Step Diagram 2.1). Between neurons, messages are transmitted chemically. The three steps shown  
here summarize this chemical transmission.  
Like Step-by-Step Diagram 2.1, this procedure is complicated, so we'll also briefly summarize it in narrative form here.  
Beginning with Step 1, note how the action potentialtravels down the axon and on to the knob-like terminal buttons. These buttons contain small tiny vesicles  
(sacs) that store the neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters then travel across the synapse, or gap between neurons, to bind to receptor sites on the nearby  
receiving neurons. (The neuron that delivers the neurotransmitter to the synapse is called a pre-synaptic neuron.)  
Now , in Step 2, like a key fitting into a lock, the neurotransmitters unlock tiny channels in the receiving neuron and send either excitatory (“fire”) or inhibitory  
(“don't fire”) messages. (The receiving neuron is called a post-synaptic neuron.)  
Finally , in Step 3, after delivering their message, the neurotransmitters must be removed from the receptor sites before the next neural transmission can occur.  
Note how some of the neurotransmitters are used up in the transmission of the message. However, most of the “leftovers” are reabsorbed by the axon and stored  
until the next neural impulse—a process known as r euptake. In other cases, the “leftovers” are dealt with via enzymes that break apart the neurotransmitters to  
clean up the synapse.  
Appreciating Neurotransmitters  
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While researching how neurons communicate, scientists have discovered numerous neurotransmitters with differing effects that will be discussed here and in  
later chapters. For instance, we now know that certain neurotransmitters play significant roles in various medical problems. Decreased levels of the  
neurotransmitter dopamine are associated with Parkinson's disease (PD), whereas excessively high levels of dopamine appear to contribute to some forms of  
schizophrenia. T able2.1 presents additional examples of how some of the most common neurotransmitters affect us. Scientists have also found that some  
agonistdrugs enhance or “mimic” the action of particular neurotransmitters, whereas antagonistdrugs block or inhibit the effects (Figure2.2).  
T able2.1How Neurotransmitters Affect Us  
NeurotransmitterSample Agonist/Antagonist Acting Drugs Known or Suspected Effects  
Which neurotransmitters best explain the skills of  
the winner of four gold medals for gymnastics in the  
2016 Olympics, Simone Biles (pictured here), or  
those involved in your own athletic abilities?  
Acetylcholine  
(ACh)  
Nicotine, amphetamines, LSD, PCP ,  
marijuana  
Muscle action, learning, attention, memory,  
REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep, emotion;  
decreased ACh may play a role in Alzheimer's  
disease  
Dopamine (DA)  
Cocaine, methamphetamine, LSD, GHB,  
PCP , marijuana, Ecstasy (MDMA), LDopa (treatment for Parkinson's disease),  
chlorpromazine (treatment for  
schizophrenia)  
Movement, attention, memory, learning,  
emotion; excess DA associated with  
schizophrenia; too little DA linked with  
Parkinson's disease; key role in addiction and  
the reward system  
Endorphins  
Heroin, morphine and oxycodone  
(treatments for pain)  
Mood, pain, memory, learning, blood pressure,  
appetite, sexual activity  
Epinephrine (or  
adrenaline)  
Amphetamines, ecstasy (MDMA),  
cocaine  
Emotional arousal, memory storage,  
metabolism of glucose necessary for energy  
release  
GABA (gammaaminobutyric  
acid)  
Alcohol, GHB, rohypnol, valium  
(treatment for anxiety)  
Learning, anxiety regulation; key role in neural  
inhibition in the central nervous system;  
tranquilizing drugs, like V alium, increase  
GABA's inhibitory effects and thereby  
decrease anxiety  
Glutamate  
Alcohol, phencyclidine, PCP , ketamine  
(an anesthetic)  
Learning, movement, memory; key role in  
neural excitation in the central nervous system;  
factor in migraines, anxiety , depression  
Norepinephrine  
(NE) [or  
noradrenaline  
(NA)]  
Cocaine, methamphetamine,  
amphetamine, ecstasy (MDMA), Adderall  
(treatment for ADHD)  
Attention, arousal learning, memory, dreaming,  
emotion, stress; low levels of NE associated  
with depression; high levels of NE linked with  
agitated, manic states  
Serotonin  
Ecstasy (MDMA), LSD, cocaine,  
selective serotonin uptake inhibitors  
(SSRIs—Prozac, used to treat depression,  
is an SSRI)  
Mood, sleep, appetite, sensory perception,  
arousal, temperature regulation, pain  
suppression, impulsivity; low levels of  
serotonin associated with depression  
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Figure 2.2 How poisons and drugs affect  
neural transmissionForeign chemicals, like  
poisons and drugs, can mimic or block  
ongoing actions of neurotransmitters, thus  
interfering with normal functions.  
Perhaps the best-known neurotransmitters are the endogenous opioid peptides, commonly known as endorphins(a contraction of endogenous[self-produced]  
and morphine). These chemicals mimic the effects of opium-based drugs such as morphine: They elevate mood and reduce pain (Antunes et al., [2.3]; Fan et  
al., [2.25]). In fact, drinking alcohol causes endorphins to be released in parts of the brain that are responsible for feelings of reward and pleasure (Mitchell et  
al., [2.60]).  
Surprisingly , researchers have even found that when we sing in choirs and/or move in synchrony with others our pain thresholds are higher and we tend to feel  
closer to others—even if the other singers and dancers are strangers (T arr et al., [2.84]; W einstein et al., [2.90]). The researchers attributed these findings to the  
release of endorphins. They also hypothesized that singing and dancing may have evolved over time because they encourage social bonding with strangers!  
Endorphins also affect memory , learning, blood pressure, appetite, and sexual activity . For example, rats injected with an endorphin-like chemical eat  
considerably more M&Ms than they would under normal conditions, even consuming as much as 17 grams (more than 5% of their body weight;  
DiFeliceantonio et al., [2.19]). Although this may not seem like a lot of chocolate to you, it is the equivalent of a normal-sized adult eating 7.5 pounds of  
M&Ms in a single session!  
Hormones and the Endocrine System  
W e've just seen how the nervous system uses neurons and neurotransmitters to transmit messages. W e also have a second type of communication system made  
up of a network of glands, called the endocrine system(Figure2.3). In contrast to the nervous system, the endocrine system uses hormones(from the Greek  
horman, meaning “stimulate” or “excite”) to carry its messages ( Figure2.4).  
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Figure 2.3 The endocrine systemThis figure shows the major endocrine glands, along with some internal organs to help you locate the glands.  
Figure 2.4 Why do we need two communication systems?Just as some e-mail messages are only sent to certain  
people, neurotransmitters only deliver messages to specific receptors, which other neurons nearby probably don't  
“overhear .” Hormones, in contrast, are like a global e-mail message that you send to everyone in your address  
book. Endocrine glands release these hormones directly into the bloodstream. The hormones then travel  
throughout the body , carrying messages to any cell that will listen. Hormones also function like global e-mail  
recipients forwarding your message to yet more people. For example, a small part of the brain called the  
hypothalamus releases hormones that signal the pituitary (another small brain structure), which stimulates or  
inhibits the release of other hormones.  
Why is the endocrine system important? Without the hypothalamus and pituitary , the testes in men would not produce testoster one, and the ovaries in women  
would not produce estrogen. As you may know , these hormones are of critical importance to sexual behavior and reproduction. In addition, the pituitary  
produces its own hormone that controls body growth. T oo much of this hormone results in gigantism; too little will make a person far smaller than average, a  
hypopituitary dwarf.  
Other hormones released by the endocrine system help maintain our body's normal functioning. For example, hormones released by the kidneys help regulate  
blood pressure. The pancreatic hormone (insulin) allows cells to use sugar from the blood. Stomach and intestinal hormones help control digestion and  
elimination.  
Before going on, note that in spite of the previously mentioned differences between the nervous system and the endocrine system, they're actually close  
relatives that are intricately interconnected. In times of crisis, the hypothalamus sends messages through two pathways—the neural system and the endocrine  
system (primarily the pituitary gland). The pituitary sends hormonal messages to the adrenal glands (located right above the kidneys). As you'll discover in  
Chapter 3, the adrenal glands then release cortisol, a stress hormone that boosts energy and blood sugar levels, epinephrine(commonly called adrenaline), and  
norepinephrine(or nonadrenaline). (Remember that these same chemicals also can serve as neurotransmitters.)  
The pituitary gland also releases another important hormone, oxytocin, which plays a very interesting role in love, attachment, and social bonding. In addition,  
oxytocin enables contractions during birth, nursing, and sexual orgasm, and high oxytocin levels are also found during hugging, cuddling, and emotional  
bonding with romantic partners. One study even discovered that men who receive a spray of the hormone oxytocin rate their female partners as more attractive  
than unfamiliar women—thus suggesting oxytocin may increase faithfulness (Scheele et al., [2.76]). Perhaps even more intriguing is the research showing that  
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dogs who stare at their owners show elevated levels of oxytocin. And, after receiving these dog gazes, the human's level of oxytocin also increases (Nagasawa  
et al., [2.61])! Can you see why this might explain why we feel so good after sharing eye contact with our dogs?  
Retrieval Practice 2.1 Neural and Hormonal Processes  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide  
immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Identify the five key parts of a neuron.  
2\.   
An action potential is ________.  
a. the likelihood that a neuron will take action when stimulated  
b. the tendency for a neuron to be potentiated by neurotransmitters  
c. the firing of a nerve, either toward or away from the brain  
d. a neural impulse that carries information along the axon of a neuron  
3\.   
According to the all-or-nothing principle, ________.  
a. a neuron cannot fire again during the refractory period  
b. a neurotransmitter either attaches to a receptor site or is destroyed in the synapse  
c. a neuron either fires completely or not at all  
d. none of these options is correct  
4\.   
Chemical messengers that are released by neurons and travel across the synapse are called ________.  
a. chemical agonists  
b. neurotransmitters  
c. synaptic transmitter  
d. neuroactivists  
5\.   
Chemicals manufactured and secreted by endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to change or maintain bodily functions are called ________.  
a. vasopressors  
b. neurotransmitters  
c. hormones  
d. chemical antagonists  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
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In Chapter 15 (Therapy), you'll learn that mental illness is often treated with the use of drugs, such as antidepressants. One commonly prescribed type of  
antidepressant is known as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), which is designed to increase levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter related to  
depression. Using what you have learned in this chapter about communication between neurons, explain how an SSRI could result in an increase in the amount  
of serotonin available in the brain.  
.  
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2.2 Nervous System Organization  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major divisions and functions of our nervous system.  
•Explainthe key features and role of our central nervous system (CNS).  
•Defineneuroplasticity and neurogenesis.  
•Describethe key components and role of our peripheral nervous system (PNS).  
Have you heard the expression “Information is power”? Nowhere is this truer than in the human body. W ithout information, we could not survive.  
Neurons within our nervous systemmust take in sensory information from the outside world and then pass it along to our entire body. Just as the  
circulatory system handles blood, which conveys chemicals and oxygen, the nervous system uses chemicals and electrical processes to convey  
information.  
The nervous system is divided and subdivided into several branches (Figure2.5). The main branch includes the brain and a bundle of nerves that form  
the spinal cor d. Because this system is located in the center of the body (within the skull and spine), it is called the central nervous system (CNS). The  
CNS is primarily responsible for processing and organizing information.  
Figure 2.5 Major divisions of our nervous system  
The second major branch of the nervous system includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. This peripheral nervous system (PNS)carries  
messages (action potentials) to and from the CNS to the periphery of the body. Now , let's take a closer look at the CNS and the PNS.  
Study Tip  
When attempting to learn and memorize a large set of new terms and concepts, like those in this chapter, organization is the best way to master the  
material and get it “permanently” stored in long-term memory (Chapter 7). A broad overview showing the “big picture” helps you organize and file  
specific details. Just as you need to see a globe of the world showing all the continents to easily place individual countries, you need a “map” of the  
entire nervous system to effectively study the individual parts.  
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Central Nervous System (CNS )  
The central nervous system (CNS) is the branch of the nervous system that makes us unique. Most other animals can smell, run, see, and hear far  
better than we can. But thanks to our CNS, we can process information and adapt to our environment in ways that no other animal can. Unfortunately,  
our CNS is also incredibly fragile. Unlike neurons in the PNS, which often are able to regenerate, neurons in the CNS can suffer serious and  
permanent damage. As we'll see later in this chapter, repeated head trauma, particularly when associated with loss of consciousness, can lead to  
debilitating and potentially fatal illnesses (Figure2.6).  
Figure 2.6 Lou Gehrig's disease or  
repeated head trauma?Lou Gehrig was  
a legendary player for the New Y ork  
Y ankees from 1925 to 1939.  
Tragically , he had to retire while still  
in his prime when he developed  
symptoms of amyotrophic lateral  
scler osis (ALS), a neurological disease  
caused by degeneration of motor  
neurons (later commonly called “Lou  
Gehrig's disease”). However,  
scientists now think that Lou Gehrig  
may not have had ALS. Instead, he  
may have developed symptoms that  
were similar to those of ALS because  
he was so often hit in the head with  
baseballs. (Gehrig played before  
batting helmets were required.) Like  
Lou Gehrig, many athletes, including  
football players, soccer players, and  
boxers, may have been similarly  
diagnosed with ALS, Parkinson's  
disease, early onset dementia, or  
Alzheimer's disease. Many  
researchers now believe that certain  
sports-related symptoms are most  
likely caused by repeated  
concussions, which may in turn lead  
to the development of these and other  
serious brain diseases (Ascherio &  
Schwarzschild, [2.4]; Eade & Heaton,  
[2.22]; T weedie et al., [2.87]).  
Note, though, that the brain may not be as “hardwired” and fragile as we once thought. In the past, scientists believed that after the first two or three  
years of life, damaged neurons within the brain or spinal cord of most animals, including humans, were impossible to repair or replace. However, we  
now know that the brain is capable of lifelong neuroplasticityand neurogenesis.  
Neuroplasticity  
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Rather than being a fixed, solid organ, the brain is capable of changing its structure and function as a result of usage and experience (Garnier et al.,  
[2.30]; Månsson et al., [2.56]; Presti, [2.69]). This “rewiring,” officially known as neuroplasticity, is what makes our brains so wonderfully adaptive.  
In later chapters, we'll discuss how neuroplasticity remodels our brains after learning and experience. But here we'll look at how it helps the brain  
modify itself after damage. For example, when infants suffer damage to the speech area of their left hemisphere, the right hemisphere can reorganize  
and pick up some language abilities. Remarkably , this rewiring has even helped “remodel” the adult brain following strokes. Psychologist Edward  
T aub and his colleagues ([2.85], [2.86]) have had notable success working with stroke patients (Figure2.7).  
Figure 2.7 A breakthrough in  
neuroscienceBy immobilizing the unaffected  
arm or leg and requiring rigorous and  
repetitive exercise of the affected limb,  
psychologist Edward T aub and colleagues  
“recruit” stroke patients' intact brain cells to  
take over for damaged cells (T aub et al.,  
[2.85], [2.86]). The therapy has restored  
function in some patients as long as 21 years  
after their strokes.  
Neurogenesis  
Whereas neuroplasticityrefers to the brain's ability to reorganize and restructure itself, neurogenesisis achieved through the formation (generation) of  
new neurons in the brain. It's important and encouraging to know that accumulating research finds regular, moderate physical exercise can increase  
neurogenesis, particularly in the hippocampus, and thereby improve memory function and help prevent cognitive decline (Ma et al., [2.51]; Nokia et  
al., [2.67]; Suwabe et al., [2.82]).  
What actually causes neurogenesis? The source of these newly created cells is stem cells—rare, immature cells that can grow and develop into any  
type of cell. Their fate depends on the chemical signals they receive. Experiments and clinical trials on both human and nonhuman animals have used  
stem cells for bone marrow transplants and to repopulate or replace cells devastated by injury or disease. Research on neurogenesis and stem cells  
offers hope to patients suffering from strokes, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, epilepsy , stress, and depression (Belkind-Gerson et al., [2.5]; Eyo et al.,  
[2.23]; Khan & He, 2017). In addition, stem cell injections into the eyes of patients with untreatable eye diseases and severe visual problems have led  
to dramatic improvements in vision (Fahnehjelm et al., [2.24]; Song & Bharti, [2.80]).  
Could stem cell transplants allow people paralyzed from spinal cord injuries to walk again? Scientists have had some success transplanting stem cells  
into spinal cord–injured nonhuman animals (Gao et al., [2.29]; Raynald et al., [2.71]; Sandner et al., [2.74]). When the damaged spinal cord was  
viewed several weeks later, the implanted cells had survived and spread throughout the injured area. Even more encouraging, the transplant animals  
also showed some improvement in previously paralyzed parts of their bodies. Medical researchers are also testing the safety of embryonic stem cell  
therapy for human paralysis patients, and future trials may determine whether these cells will repair damaged spinal cords and/or improve sensation  
and movement in paralyzed areas (Granger et al., [2.34]; Presti, [2.69]; Robbins, [2.73]).  
Before going on, it's important to note that neuroplasticity and neurogenesis are NOT the same as neuroregeneration, which refers to the regrowth or  
repair of neurons, glia, or synapses. This process is fairly common within the peripheral nervous system. Y ou've undoubtedly watched a cut heal on  
your skin and/or known of someone who slowly regained his or her feeling and function after a serious motor vehicle accident or severe fall. In  
contrast, regeneration after damage within the central nervous system is far less common. However, scientists have made significant advances in  
promoting axon growth, preventing scar formation, and enhancing compensatory growth on uninjured neurons. In addition, you'll be happy to know  
that relatively simple mental skills training and physical exercise have significant benefits for our brains, including increasing neurogenesis and  
helping to prevent the cognitive declines associated with disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease (DiFeo & Shors, [2.20]; Jang et  
al., 2016; Ma et al., [2.51]).  
Now that we've discussed neuroplasticity and neurogenesis within the central nervous system, let's take a closer look at the spinal cord. Because of its  
central importance for psychology and behavior, we'll discuss the brain in more detail in the next major section.  
Spinal Cord  
Beginning at the base of our brains and continuing down our backs, the spinal cord carries vital information from the rest of the body into and out of  
the brain. But the spinal cord doesn't simply relay messages. It can also initiate certain automatic behaviors on its own. W e call these involuntary ,  
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automatic behaviors reflexes, or r eflex arcs, because the response to the incoming stimuli is automatically sent to the spinal cord and then “reflected”  
back to the appropriate muscles. This allows an immediate action response without the delay of routing signals first to the brain.  
As you can see in the simple reflex arc depicted in Step-by-Step Diagram2.3, a sensory receptor first responds to stimulation and initiates a neural  
impulse that travels to the spinal cord. This signal then travels back to the appropriate muscle, which reflexively contracts. The response is automatic  
and immediate in a reflex because the signal travels only as far as the spinal cord before action is initiated, not all the way to the brain. The brain is  
later “notified” of the action when the spinal cord sends along the message.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 2.3 How the Spinal Reflex Operates  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
In a simple reflex arc, a sensory receptor responds to stimulation and initiates a neural impulse that travels to the spinal cord. This signal then travels  
back to the appropriate muscle, which reflexively contracts. Note that the reflex response is automatic and immediate because the signal only travels  
as far as the spinal cord before action is initiated, not all the way to the brain. The brain is later “notified” when the spinal cord sends along the  
message, which, in this case of the hot pan, leads to a perception of pain. What might be the evolutionary advantages of the reflex arc?  
W e're all born with numerous reflexes, many of which fade over time (see the Try This Y ourself). But even as adults, we still blink in response to a  
puff of air in our eyes, gag when something touches the back of the throat, and urinate and defecate in response to pressure in the bladder and rectum.  
Try This Y ourself T esting for Reflexes  
If you have a newborn or young infant in your home, you can easily (and safely) test for these simple reflexes. (Most infant reflexes disappear within  
the first year of life. If they reappear in later life, it generally indicates damage to the central nervous system.)  
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T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
What might happen if infants lacked these reflexes?  
2\.   
Can you explain why most infant reflexes disappear within the first year?  
Reflexes even influence our sexual responses. Certain stimuli, such as the stroking of the genitals, can lead to arousal and the reflexive muscle  
contractions of orgasm in both men and women. However, in order for us to have the passion, thoughts, and emotion we normally associate with sex,  
the sensory information from the stroking and orgasm must be carried on to the appropriate areas of the brain that receive and interpret these specific  
sensory messages.  
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS )  
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is just what it sounds like—the part that involves nerves peripheralto (or outside) the brain and spinal cord. The  
chief function of the PNS is to carry information to and from the central nervous system (CNS). It links the brain and spinal cord to the body's sense  
receptors, muscles, and glands.  
Looking back at Figure2.5, note that the PNS consists of two separate subdivisions. The first, the somatic nervous system (SNS), consists of all the  
nerves that connect to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles. The name comes from the term soma, which means “body ,” and the SNS plays a key  
role in communication throughout the entire body . As you recall from Step-by-Step Diagram 2.3, the SNS (also called the skeletal nervous system)  
first carries sensory information to the brain and spinal cord (CNS) and then carries messages from the CNS to skeletal muscles.  
The other subdivision of the PNS is the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is responsible for involuntary tasks, such as heart rate, digestion,  
pupil dilation, and breathing. Like an automatic pilot, the ANS can sometimes be consciously overridden. But as its name implies, the autonomic  
system normally operates on its own (autonomously).  
The ANS is further divided into two branches, the sympathetic and parasympathetic, which tend to work in opposition to each other to regulate the  
functioning of such target organs as the heart, the intestines, and the lungs (Figure2.8). Like two children on a teeter-totter , one will be up while the  
other is down, but they essentially balance each other out.  
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Figure 2.8 Actions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)The ANS is responsible for a variety of independent  
(autonomous) activities, such as salivation and digestion. It exercises this control through its two divisions—the sympathetic  
and parasympathetic branches.  
Study Tip  
One way to differentiate the two subdivisions of the ANS is to imagine skydiving out of an airplane. When you initially jump, your sympathetic  
nervous system has “sympathy” for your stressful situation. It alerts and prepares you for immediate action. Once your “para” chute opens, your  
“para” sympathetic nervous system takes over, and you can relax as you float safely to earth.  
During stressful times, either mental or physical, the sympathetic nervous systemarouses and mobilizes bodily resources to respond to the stressor .  
This emergency response is often called the “fight or flight” response. (Note this response has recently been expanded and relabeled as the “fightflight-freeze” response, which will be fully discussed in Chapter 3.) If you noticed a dangerous snake coiled and ready to strike, your sympathetic  
nervous system would increase your heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure; stop your digestive and eliminative processes; and release hormones,  
such as cortisol, into the bloodstream. The net result of sympathetic activation is to get more oxygenated blood and energy to the skeletal muscles,  
thus allowing you to cope with the stress—to either fight or flee.  
In contrast to the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous systemis responsible for calming our bodies and conserving energy . It  
returns our normal bodily functions by slowing our heart rate, lowering our blood pressure, and increasing our digestive and eliminative processes.  
The sympathetic nervous system provides an adaptive, evolutionary advantage. At the beginning of human evolution, when we faced a dangerous bear  
or an aggressive human attacker, there were only three reasonable responses—fight, flight, or freeze. The automatic mobilization of bodily resources  
can still be critical, even in modern times. However, less life-threatening events, such as traffic jams, also activate our sympathetic nervous system. As  
the next chapter discusses, ongoing sympathetic system response to such chronic, daily stress can become detrimental to our health. For a look at how  
the autonomic nervous system affects our sexual lives, see Figure2.9.  
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Figure 2.9 Autonomic nervous system and sexual arousalThe complexities of sexual interaction—and, in  
particular, the difficulties couples sometimes have in achieving sexual arousal or orgasm—illustrate the  
balancing act between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.  
a.Parasympathetic dominance Sexual arousal and excitement require that the body be relaxed enough to  
allow increased blood flow to the genitals—in other words, the nervous system must be in  
parasympathetic dominance. Parasympathetic nerves carry messages from the central nervous system  
directly to the sexual organs, allowing for a localized response (increased blood flow and genital  
arousal).  
b.Sympathetic dominance During strong emotions, such as anger, anxiety , or fear , the body shifts to  
sympathetic dominance, which causes blood flow to the genitals and other organs to decrease because  
the body is preparing for “fight, flight, or freeze.” As a result, the person is unable (or less likely) to  
become sexually aroused. Any number of circumstances—performance anxiety , fear of unwanted  
pregnancy or disease, or tensions between partners—can trigger sympathetic dominance.  
Retrieval Practice 2.2 Nervous System Organization  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will  
provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Fill in the blank lines.  
2\.   
The central nervous system ________.  
a. consists of the brain and spinal cord  
b. is responsible for the fight-flight-freeze response  
c. includes the automatic and somatic nervous systems  
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d. has all these characteristics  
3\.   
The peripheral nervous system is ________.  
a. composed of the spinal cord and peripheral nerves  
b. less important than the central nervous system  
c. contained within the skull and spinal column  
d. a combination of all the nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord  
4\.   
The ________nervous system is responsible for the fight-flight-freeze response, whereas the ________nervous system is responsible for maintaining  
or restoring calm.  
a. central; peripheral  
b. parasympathetic; sympathetic  
c. sympathetic; parasympathetic  
d. autonomic; somatic  
5\.   
If you are startled by the sound of a loud explosion, the ________nervous system will become dominant.  
a. semiautomatic  
b. afferent  
c. parasympathetic  
d. sympathetic  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction and Research Methods), you discovered that psychologists are very concerned with following strict ethical guidelines in  
conducting research. In this chapter, you have learned that damage to neurons in the CNS can lead to serious and permanent damage. Consider the  
ethical guidelines requiring informed consentand voluntary participation. Can individuals with impaired memory or serious brain injury understand  
their rights as research participants? Discuss how psychologists studying these conditions might address possible ethical concerns.  
.  
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2.3 A T our Through the Brain  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the tools used in biological research, along with the brain's key structures and functions.  
•Identifythe tools neuroscientists use to study the brain and nervous system.  
•Describethe major structures of the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain, as well as their respective functions.  
The brain is the last and grandest biological frontier, the most complex thing we have yet discovered in our universe. It contains hundreds of billions of cells  
interlinked through trillions of connections. The brain boggles the mind.  
—James Watson (American Biologist, Geneticist, Co-discoverer of DNA's Structure)  
Ancient cultures, including those of the Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese, believed the heart was the center of all thoughts and emotions. Today , we know that  
the brain and the rest of the nervous system are the center of virtually all parts of our life.  
W e begin our exploration of the brain with a discussion of the tools that neuroscientists use to study it. Then we offer a quick tour of the brain, beginning at its  
lower end, where the spinal cord joins the base of the brain, and then moving upward, all the way to the top of the skull. As we move from bottom to top,  
“lower ,” basic processes, such as breathing, generally give way to more complex mental processes.  
Biological T ools for Research  
How do we know how the brain and nervous system work? W e use a variety of tools, including those shown in T able2.2. Interestingly , scientists in early times  
sought answers by dissectingthe brains and other body parts of human and nonhuman animals. They also used lesioningtechniques (systematically destroying  
bodily tissue to study the effects on behavior and mental processes). By the mid-1800s, this research had produced a basic map of the nervous system, including  
some areas of the brain. Early researchers also relied on clinical observations and case studies of living people who had experienced injuries, diseases, or  
disorders that affected brain functioning.  
T able2.2Sample T ools for Biological Research  
T ool Description Purpose  
EEG  
(electroencephalogram)  
Electrical activity throughout the brain sweeps in regular waves  
across its surface. Electrodes attached to the skin or scalp detect  
this brain activity and record it on an EEG.  
Reveals areas of the brain most active  
during particular tasks or mental states,  
such as reading or sleeping; also traces  
abnormal brain waves caused by brain  
malfunctions, such as epilepsy or tumors.  
CT (computed  
tomography) scan  
Computer-created cross-sectional X-rays of the brain or other  
parts of the body produce 3-D images. Least expensive type of  
imaging and widely used in research.  
Reveals the effects of strokes, injuries,  
tumors, and other brain disorders. The CT  
scan shown on the left used X-rays to  
locate a brain tumor , which is the deep  
purple mass at the top left.  
PET (positron emission  
tomography) scan  
A radioactive form of glucose is injected into the bloodstream; a  
scanner records the amount of glucose used in particularly active  
areas of the brain and produces a computer-constructed picture of  
the brain like the one on the left.  
Originally designed to detect abnormalities,  
now used to identify brain areas active  
during ordinary activities (such as reading  
or singing).  
MRI (magnetic  
resonance imaging)  
Using a powerful magnet and radio waves linked to a computer,  
a scanner creates detailed, cross-sectional images. Note the  
fissures and internal structures of the brain shown on the left.  
The throat, nasal airways, and fluid surrounding the brain are  
dark.  
Produces high-resolution 3-D pictures of  
the brain useful for identifying  
abnormalities and mapping brain structures  
and function.  
fMRI (functional  
magnetic resonance  
imaging)  
Newer, faster version of MRI that detects blood flow by picking  
up magnetic signals from blood that has given up its oxygen to  
activate brain cells, shown on the left. The yellow-highlighted  
areas in this fMRI are “lit up,” which tells us that oxygen from  
the blood is being heavily used in these regions.  
Measures blood flow, which indicates areas  
of the brain that are active and inactive  
during ordinary behaviors or responses  
(like reading or talking); also shows  
changes associated with various disorders.  
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T ool Description Purpose  
Other methods  
(a)Cell body or tract  
(myelin) staining  
(b)Microinjections  
(c)Intrabrain  
electrical recordings  
(a)Colors/stains selected neurons or nerve fibers.  
(b)Injects chemicals into specific areas of the brain.  
(c)Records activity of one or a group of neurons inside the  
brain.  
Increase overall information of structure  
and function through direct observation and  
measurement. Intrabrain wire probes allow  
scientists to “see” individual neuron  
activity .  
Modern researchers still use such methods, but they also employ other techniques that allow them to “look inside” the healthy human brain while it's at work  
(see again T able2.2). Most of these methods are relatively noninvasive—that is, their use does not involve breaking the skin or entering the body . Why are  
these modern techniques so important? Neuroscientists have likened their potential transformative effects to those of the telescope for astronomy and the  
microscope for biology. Thanks to fMRI brain scans, for example, we can now identify which of our brain areas are most active when we're listening to music,  
feeling angry or sad, or even thinking and planning ahead. W e also can gain insights and potential answers to popular questions such as: “Does stress change  
our brains?” (See Chapter 3.) “Can we train our brains?” (Check out the Psychology and Y our Personal Success at the end of this chapter .) And perhaps one of  
the most controversial questions of all, “Are male and female brains different”? (See the following Gender and Cultural Diversity .)  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Are Male and Female Brains Different?  
Over the years, numerous physical differences have been reported between the brains of men and women. And, as you might imagine, the interpretations of  
these differences and of their significance are highly controversial. What are the facts? Research using brain scans, autopsies, and volumetric measurements has  
identified several structural and functional differences in the brains of men and women (e.g., Gur & Gur, [2.36]). For example, several studies have revealed sex  
differences in the hippocampus, which is critical to the formation and retrieval of memories (Duarte-Guterman et al., [2.21]; Scharfman & MacLusky, [2.75]).  
In addition, the corpus callosum, a band of tissue connecting the brain's two hemispheres, is correlated with manipulating spatial relationships, and there is a  
size differential here between men and women (Garrett, [2.31]; Newman, [2.64]). T able2.3 illustrates samples of the type of tasks researchers have used to  
demonstrate these and other reported sex differences.  
T able2.3Problem-Solving T asks Reportedly Favoring W omen and Men  
T asks Favoring W omen T asks Favoring Men  
Perceptual speed:As quickly as possible,  
identify matching items.  
Spatial tasks:Mentally rotate the 3-D  
object to identify its match.  
Displaced objects:After looking at the middle  
picture, tell which item is missing from the  
picture on the right.  
Spatial tasks:Mentally manipulate  
the folded paper to tell where the holes  
will falls when it is unfolded.  
V erbal fluency:List words that begin with the  
same letter .  
T arget-directed motor skills:Hit the  
bull's eye.  
Precision manual tasks:Place the pegs in the  
holes as quickly as possible.  
Disembedding tests:Find the simple  
shape on the left in the more complex  
figures.  
Many scientists strongly support such studies of brain differences, saying that they greatly increase our understanding of both normal and pathological brain  
functioning and development (e.g., Biasibetti et al., [2.6]; Macey et al., [2.50]; McCarthy et al., [2.57]). Some critics, however, emphasize that sex differences  
in the brain are generally small, that there is considerable variation within groups of men and women, and that gender should not be seen as a strict, binary  
difference—either male or female (Hyde, [2.38]; Miller & Halpern, [2.59]; Richardson, [2.72]).  
Unfortunately , studies of brain sex differences do lead some people to mistakenly believe that differences between men and women are hardwiredand  
immutable to change. Can you see how this might increase prejudice and discrimination? And how a focus on brain differences might dissuade people from  
fighting to improve opportunities for women and men alike? Bear in mind that meta-analyses show that the two sexes are quite similar on most psychological  
variables (Hyde, [2.38]). And there is simply no scientific basis for believing that all, or even most, brain differences are hardwired. As you'll discover  
throughout this text, our brains are remarkably adaptive, and biological and environmental variables interact and influence one another throughout our lifespan  
—the biopsychosocial model.  
Brain Organization  
Having studied the tools scientists use for exploring the brain, we can now begin our tour. Let's talk first about brain size and complexity , which vary  
significantly from species to species (Figure2.10). As in the brains of other animals, the billions of neurons that make up the human brain control much of  
what we think, feel, and do. Certain brain structures are specialized to perform certain tasks, a process known as localization of function. However , most parts  
of the brain perform integrating, overlapping functions.  
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Figure 2.10 Brain comparisonsIn general, lower  
species (such as fish and reptiles) have smaller,  
less complex brains. The most complex brains  
belong to dolphins, whales, and higher primates  
(such as gorillas, chimps, and humans).  
As you can see in Figure2.11, scientists typically divide and label the human brain into three major sections: thehindbrain, midbrain,andfor ebrain.  
Figure 2.11 The human brainNote on the left side of this figure how the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain radically change in their size and placement during  
prenatal development. The profile drawing in the middle highlights key structures and functions of the right half of the adult brain. As you read about each of  
these structures, keep this drawing in mind and refer to it as necessary . (The diagram shows the brain structures as if the brain were split vertically down the  
center and the left hemisphere were removed.)  
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Hindbrain  
Picture this: Y ou're asleep and in the middle of a frightening nightmare. Y our heart is racing, your breathing is rapid, and you're attempting to run away but find  
you can't move! Suddenly , your nightmare is shattered by a buzzing alarm clock. All your automatic behaviors and survival responses in this scenario are  
controlled or influenced by parts of the hindbrain. The hindbrainincludes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.  
The medullais essentially an extension of the spinal cord, with many neural fibers passing through it carrying information to and from the brain. Because the  
medulla controls many essential automatic bodily functions, such as respiration and heart rate, serious damage to this area is most often fatal.  
The ponsis involved in respiration, movement, sleeping, waking, and dreaming (among other things). It also contains axons that cross from one side of the  
brain to the other (ponsis Latin for “bridge”).  
The cauliflower-shaped cerebellum(Latin for “little brain”) is, evolutionarily , a very old structure. It coordinates fine muscle movement and balance ( Figure  
2.12). Researchers using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have shown that parts of the cerebellum also are important for memory, sensation,  
perception, cognition, language, learning, and even “multitasking” (Garrett, [2.31]; Ng et al., [2.65]; Presti, [2.69]). Interestingly, researchers have found that  
people who play video games for 30 minutes a day for two months show increases in gray matter in the cerebellum, right hippocampus, and right prefrontal  
cortex (Kühn et al., [2.41]). Gray matter is critical for higher cognitive functioning, and we'll describe these brain areas in more detail in the next section. For  
now it's enough to know that these brain sections are largely responsible for spatial navigation, strategic planning, and fine motor skills in the hands. In short,  
research suggests that playing video games may actually be good for your brain!  
Figure 2.12 W alk the lineAsking  
drivers to perform tasks like  
walking the white line is a  
common part of a field sobriety  
test for possible intoxication.  
Why? The cerebellum,  
responsible for smooth and  
precise movements, is one of the  
first areas of the brain to be  
affected by alcohol.  
Midbrain  
The midbrainhelps us orient our eye and body movements to visual and auditory stimuli, and it works with the pons to help control sleep and level of arousal.  
It also contains a small structure, the substantia nigra, that secretes the neurotransmitter dopamine. Parkinson's disease, an age-related degenerative condition,  
is related to the deterioration of neurons in the substantia nigra and the subsequent loss of dopamine.  
Running through the core of the hindbrain and midbrain is the reticular formation (RF). This diffuse, finger-shaped network of neurons helps screen incoming  
sensory information and alert the higher brain centers to critical events. Without our reticular formation, we would not be alert or perhaps even conscious.  
Before going on, note that the reticular formation passes through the brainstem, a diffuse, stem-shaped area that includes much of the midbrain as well as the  
pons and medulla in the hindbrain (see again Figure2.11). At its lower end, the brainstem connects with the spinal cord, and at its upper end it attaches to the  
thalamus.  
Forebrain  
The forebrainis the largest and most prominent part of the human brain. It includes the cerebral cortex, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus ( Figure  
2.13). The last three are located near the top of the brainstem. The cerebral cortex (discussed separately, in the next section) is wrapped above and around them.  
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(Cerebrumis Latin for “brain,” and cortexis Latin for “covering” or “bark.”)  
Figure 2.13 Major structures of the forebrain  
An interconnected group of forebrain structures, known as the limbic system, is located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and the lowerlevel brain structures (Figure2.14). Although opinion is divided upon whether other structures, such as the hypothalamus and thalamus, should be included as  
part of the limbic system, its two most important structures are the hippocampus and amygdala. The limbic system is generally responsible for emotions, drives,  
and memory . In Chapter 7, you'll discover how the hippocampus, a key part of the limbic system, is involved in forming and retrieving our memories. However,  
the limbic system's major focus of interest is the amygdala, which is linked to the production and regulation of emotions—especially aggression and fear  
(Cohen et al., [2.12]; LeDoux, [2.44], [2.45]; Månsson et al., [2.56]). Ironically , researchers have found supportive evidence within the amygdala for a common  
parental warning—lying actually does seem to lead to more lies (see the following Research Challenge).  
Figure 2.14 Key structures commonly  
associated with the limbic system  
Research Challenge Does L ying Lead to More Lies?  
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The short answer is yes! W e now have scientific evidence that telling small lies desensitizes our brains to the associated negative emotions and may encourage  
us to tell bigger lies in the future (Garrett et al., [2.32]). In this particular study, the brains of 80 volunteer participants were scanned in an fMRI machine (see  
the photo) while they were shown pennies in a glass jar . Participants were then randomly assigned to different groups and given different incentives to lie about  
how much money they estimated that the jar contained. Their estimates were then sent via computer to an unseen partner.  
In the baseline scenario, participants were told that aiming for the most accurate estimate would benefit both the participant and his or her partner. In various  
other conditions, overestimating or underestimating the amount would either benefit them at their partner's expense, would benefit both of them, would benefit  
their partner at their own expense, or would only benefit one of them with no effect on the other .  
What do you think happened? When overestimating the amount would benefit the volunteer at the partner's expense, the volunteer started by slightly  
exaggerating his or her estimates, which in turn, elicited strong amygdala activation in the participant's brain. More importantly, as the experiment went on,  
participants' exaggerations escalated, but activation within the amygdala (shown by the fMRI scans) declined. How can this be explained? Just as our brains  
and nervous systems generally adapt to higher and higher levels of drugs (Chapter 5), the amygdala (which is responsible for emotional processing and arousal)  
apparently adapts and becomes desensitized to increasing levels of lying. In sum, we now have biological evidence (changes in the amygdala) for a so-called  
“slippery slope”—small lies often escalate to ever-larger ones.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did the researchers in this study (Garrett et al., [2.32]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, and/or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a  
quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and public reports of  
research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer  
of scientific research.  
The thalamusis located at the top of the brainstem. It integrates input from the senses, and it may also function in learning and memory (Chiou et al., [2.10];  
W ang et al., [2.51]; Zhou et al., [2.94]). The thalamus receives input from nearly all sensory systems, except smell, and then directs the information to the  
appropriate cortical areas. The thalamus also transmits some higher brain information to the cerebellum and medulla. Think of the thalamus as the switchboard  
in an air traffic control center that receives information from all aircraft and directs them to appropriate landing or takeoff areas.  
Because the thalamus is the brain's major sensory relay center to the cerebral cortex, damage or abnormalities in the thalamus might cause the cortex to  
misinterpret or not receive vital sensory information. As you'll discover in Chapter 14, brain-imaging research links thalamus abnormalities to schizophrenia, a  
serious psychological disorder characterized by problems with sensory filtering and perception (Cho et al., [2.11]; W oodward & Heckers, [2.91]).  
Beneath the thalamus lies the kidney bean–sized hypothalamus. (Hypo- means “under .”) This organ has been called the “master control center” that helps  
govern drives, such as hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression, and hormones (e.g., Loveland & Fernald, [2.48]; Presti, [2.69]; Wright et al., [2.92]). See the  
following Try This Y ourself, which explains how the hypothalamus affects weight and dieting.  
Try This Y ourself Diet and the Hypothalamus  
Have you ever gone on a diet to try to lose weight or lost weight but then struggled to maintain your new weight? One of the reasons long-term weight loss is so  
hard for many people is that eating a high-fat diet can lead to long-term changes in the hypothalamus (Cordeira et al., [2.13]; Stamatakis et al., [2.81]; Zhang et  
al., [2.93]). These changes make it harder for the body to regulate its weight, meaning that you will continue to feel hungry even when you have just eaten  
plenty of food.  
Another well-known function of the hypothalamus is its role as part of the so-called “pleasure center,” a set of brain structures whose stimulation leads to  
highly enjoyable feelings (Loonen & Ivanova, [2.47]; Naneix et al., [2.62]; Olds & Milner, [2.68]). Even though the hypothalamus and other structures and  
neurotransmitters are instrumental in emotions, the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex also play an important role.  
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Hanging down from the hypothalamus, the pituitary glandis usually considered the “master endocrine gland” because it releases hormones that activate the  
other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus influences the pituitary through direct neural connections and through release of its own hormones into the blood  
supply of the pituitary .  
Retrieval Practice 2.3 A T our Through the Brain  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide  
immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Label the following structures/areas of the brain:  
a.corpus callosum  
b.amygdala  
c.cerebellum  
d.thalamus  
e.hippocampus  
f.cerebral cortex  
2\.   
Damage to the medulla can lead to loss of ________.  
a. vision  
b. respiration  
c. hearing  
d. smell  
3\.   
The pons, cerebellum, and the medulla are all ________.  
a. higher-level brain structures  
b. cortical areas  
c. association areas  
d. hindbrain structures  
4\.   
The brainstem is primarily involved with your ________.  
a. sense of smell and taste  
b. sense of touch and pain  
c. automatic survival functions  
d. emotional behavior  
5\.   
An interconnected group of forebrain structures particularly responsible for emotions is known as the ________.  
a. subcortical center  
b. homeostatic controller  
c. limbic system  
d. master endocrine gland  
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Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you learned that the limbic systemis a group of forebrain structures involved with memory and emotions (such as fear or pleasure). In Chapter  
13 (Personality), you'll learn that activity in certain areas of the brain may contribute to some personality traits, such as shyness or extraversion. Explain how  
the limbic systems of shy or outgoing individuals might respond differently to unfamiliar people or situations.  
.  
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Print this page  
2.4 The Cerebral Cortex  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key features and major divisions of the cerebral cortex.  
•Discussthe location and functions of the eight lobes of the cerebral cortex.  
•Describethe brain's two specialized hemispheres and split-brain research.  
W e sit on the threshold of important new advances in neuroscience that will yield increased understanding of how the brain functions and of more effective  
treatments to heal brain disorders and diseases. How the brain behaves in health and disease may well be the most important question in our lifetime.  
—Richard D. Broadwell (Neuroscientist, Author, Educator)  
The gray , wrinkled cerebral cortex, the surface layer of the cerebral hemispheres, is responsible for most complex behaviors and higher mental processes  
(Figure2.15). It plays such a vital role in human life that many consider it the essence of life. Without a functioning cortex, we would be almost completely  
unaware of ourselves and our surroundings.  
a. A top-down view of the  
cerebral cortex  
Looking at this photo of the top  
side of a human brain, all you  
can see is its outer, wrinkled  
surface, known as the cerebral  
cortex.  
b. A view inside the cerebral  
cortex  
If you made a vertical cut along  
the center crevice of the brain,  
you would have this inside  
view of the right hemisphere.  
Note the wrinkled convolutions  
(folds) of the cerebral cortex  
around the top and the  
midbrain and hindbrain in the  
center and at the bottom.  
Figure 2.15 The cerebral  
cortex  
Although the cerebral cortex is only about one-eighth of an inch thick, it's made up of approximately 30 billion neurons and nine times as many glial cells. Its  
numerous wrinkles, called convolutions, significantly increase its surface area. Interestingly , the amount of “wrinkling” or convolutions reflects the brain's  
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functional complexity and information-processing capacity . This means that having fewer convolutions (a “smooth” brain) is correlated with lower levels of  
cognitive functioning (T allinen et al., [2.83]).  
Damage to the cerebral cortex is linked to numerous problems, including suicide, substance abuse, and dementia (Flores et al., [2.26]; Presti, [2.69]; Sharma et  
al., [2.79]). Evidence suggests that such trauma is particularly common in athletes who experience head injuries in sports like football, ice hockey, boxing, and  
soccer (Figure2.16).  
Figure 2.16 Damage to the brainA  
growing number of professional soccer  
organizations have enacted a new rule  
requiring doctors (instead of coaches)  
to determine whether a player can  
safely return to the game after  
experiencing a head injury . This rule  
was enacted following several highprofile cases in which players appeared  
to suffer concussions during W orld Cup  
games, yet quickly returned to the  
matches. In this photo, you see Morgan  
Brian of the U.S. W omen's National  
T eam colliding with another player in  
the semifinals of the 2015 W omen's  
W orld Cup.  
Have you watched brain surgeries in movies or on television? After the skull is opened, you'll first see a gray, wrinkled, cerebral cortex that closely resembles  
an oversized walnut. Also like a walnut, the cortex has a division, or fissur e, down the center marking the separation between the left and right hemispheresof  
the brain, which make up about 80% of the brain's weight. The hemispheres are mostly filled with axon connections between the cortex and the other brain  
structures. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body (Figure2.17).  
Figure 2.17 Information  
crossoverOur  
brains' right  
hemisphere  
controls the left  
side of our  
bodies, whereas  
the left  
hemisphere  
controls the  
right side.  
Lobes of the Brain  
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Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four distinct areas, or lobes (Figure2.18). T o help you remember these areas, picture their relative locations—frontal  
lobes (behind your forehead), temporal lobes (above your ears), occipital lobes (back of your head) and parietal lobes (at the top and back of your head). Like  
the lower-level brain structures, the lobes specialize in somewhat different tasks, another example of localization of function. However, some functions overlap  
two or more lobes.  
Figure 2.18 Lobes of the brainThis is a view of the brain's left hemisphere showing its four lobes—fr ontal, parietal,  
temporal, and occipital. The right hemisphere has the same four lobes. Divisions between the lobes are marked by visibly  
prominent folds. Keep in mind that Broca's and W ernicke's areas occur only in the left hemisphere.  
Frontal Lobes  
By far the largest of the cortical lobes, the two frontal lobesare generally what we think of as “the mind” because they're responsible for at least three major  
functions:  
1.Higher cognitive processes Our frontal lobes control most complex cognitive processes, including executive functions (EFs), intelligence, and personality .  
Research conducted by our famous introductory figure, Adele Diamond, suggests that EFs are composed of three major abilities—cognitive flexibility  
(“thinking outside the box”), working memory, and impulse contr ol. She also believes that EFs are crucial for success in all parts of life, and her work with  
children has shown that they can be developed and improved with practice (Diamond, [2.17], [2.18]).  
2.Speech production Broca's area, located in the leftfrontal lobe near the bottom of the motor control area, plays a crucial role in speech production. In  
1865, French physician Paul Broca discovered that damage to this area causes difficulty in speech, but not language comprehension (see the Study Tip).  
This type of impaired language ability is known as Broca's aphasia.  
Study Tip  
Remember that Broca's area in the left frontal lobe is responsible for speech production. Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe is involved in language  
comprehension.  
3.V oluntary motor control At the very back of the frontal lobes lies the motor cortex, which sends messages to the various muscles that instigate voluntary  
movement. When you want to call your friend on your cell phone, the motor control area of your frontal lobes guides your fingers to press the desired  
sequence of numbers.  
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As you might imagine, damage to the frontal lobes seriously affects motivation, drives, creativity , self-awareness, initiative, and reasoning. In addition,  
individuals suffering from schizophrenia (Chapter 14) often show loss of tissue and abnormal brain activity in the frontal lobes (DeRosse et al., [2.15]; Lake et  
al., [2.43]; W atsky et al., [2.89]). Surprisingly , researchers have even found that a high-fat diet (particularly during adolescence) can negatively affect synapses  
in the frontal lobes (see Figure2.19).  
Figure 2.19 Can high-fat foods decrease cognitive  
efficiency?W e've all heard numerous warnings about the  
dangers of high-fat foods. Now we have scientific evidence  
that they even increase the chances of cognitive and  
psychiatric problems in later life—especially if these foods  
are consumed during the teen years (Labouesse et al., [2.42]).  
Why? Apparently, these foods deplete levels of a key protein  
that helps synapses in the frontal lobes function properly .  
On a more encouraging note, updated information on the famous case of Phineas Gage, which is discussed in the following Research Challenge, indicates that  
damage to the frontal lobes may not be as permanent as we once thought, thanks to the two processes we discussed earlier— neuroplasticityand neurogenesis.  
Further good news regarding the power of your frontal lobes can be found in the Psychology and Y our Personal Success following the Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Phineas Gage—Myths V ersus Facts  
In 1848, a 25-year-old railroad foreman named Phineas Gage had a metal rod (13½ pounds, 3 feet 7 inches long, and 1¼ inches in diameter) accidentally blown  
through the front of his face, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe. Amazingly , Gage was immediately able to sit up, speak, and move around, and he  
did not receive medical treatment until about 1½ hours later. After his wound healed, he tried to return to work, but was soon fired. The previously friendly ,  
efficient, and capable foreman was now “fitful, impatient, and lacking in deference to his fellows” (Macmillan, [2.53]). In the words of his friends: “Gage was  
no longer Gage” (Harlow , [2.37]).  
This so-called “American Crowbar Case” is often cited in current texts and academic papers as one of the earliest in-depth studies of an individual's survival  
after massive damage to the brain's frontal lobes. The evidence is clear that Gage did experience several dramatic changes in his behavior and personality after  
the accident, but the extent and permanence of these changes are in dispute. Most accounts of post-accident Gage report him as impulsive and unreliable until  
his death. However, more reliable evidence later showed that Gage spent many years driving stagecoaches—a job that required high motor, cognitive, and  
interpersonal skills (Griggs, [2.35]; Macmillan & Lena, [2.54]).  
So why bother reporting this controversy? As you'll note throughout this text, we discuss several popular misconceptions in psychology in order to clarify and  
correct them. Phineas Gage's story is particularly significant because it highlights how a small set of reliable facts can be distorted and shaped to fit existing  
beliefs and scientific theories. For example, at the time of Gage's accident, little was known about how the brain functions, and damage to it was believed to be  
largely irreversible. Do you see how our current research techniques, along with our new understanding of neurogenesisand neuroplasticity, might explain the  
previously ignored evidence of Gage's significant recovery in later life?  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did the various studies focusing on Phineas Gage use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
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If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, and or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a  
quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and public reports of  
research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer  
of scientific research.  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success How to Train Y our Brain  
Did you know that “enjoying life to the fullest” and “living a healthier lifestyle” were the top two New Y ear's resolutions in January 2016, yet by the second  
week of February about 80% of these resolutions had failed (Luciani, [2.49]; Quinn, [2.70])? Being a college student, you'd probably add something about  
studying more, partying less, and so on—goals you're also unlikely to meet. Why? The general answer is faulty brain training! The good news is that by  
understanding your frontal lobes, you now have the power to create positive brain training that leads to lasting, healthy changes in your life.  
As you can see in Step-by-Step Diagram2.4, making a change in your life begins within your brain's frontal lobes (Step 1). Using your executive functions,  
first identify the problem you want to solve (a behavior you want to change). Next, develop a plan for implementing the desired change. Then activate your “I  
can do it” growth mindset(by reminding yourself of your abilities and potential for change and improvement—Chapter 1). For example, if your identified  
problem is that you need to study more to achieve your long-term goals, you might start by self-monitoring and keeping careful notes of what you do  
throughout a typical day .  
If, as a result of the self-monitoring, you notice that you watch television every night instead of studying, decide what you need to do to increase your impulse  
control, delay your gratification (Chapter 12), and then implement the new behavior (Step 2). One way to accomplish all of this might be to create a rule that  
you cannot turn on your television until you've studied for an hour. Y ou can later expand on this rule by thinking flexibly and maybe adding another alternative  
rule that you can only check your e-mail or social media after studying for 10 minutes. Keep in mind that these rewards should be small, immediate, and  
presented AFTER the appropriate behavior (Chapter 6).  
In Step 3, remind yourself that in addition to a growth mindset the other major key to achievement is grit—perseverance and passion in pursuing long-term  
goals (Chapter 1). T o increase your grit, frequently remind yourself that you deeply want to achieve your long-term goals and that your current behavior change  
(e.g., studying more) will help you attain them. Also, join a “gritty group.” Being with other people who share your passion and perseverance will help motivate  
and guide you.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 2.4 Brain Training—A “V irtuous” Cycle  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
Note the arrows joining the three steps. They signal that with repeated practice the new behavior change becomes self-reinforcing. Research has shown that  
healthy behaviors, exercise in particular, actually improve your brain's executive functions, including cognitive flexibility , impulse control, and other higher  
cognitive processes (Allan et al., [2.2]; Diamond, [2.17], [2.18]). By pushing through the first few weeks of a new behavior change, you'll be ultimately  
rewarded with stronger frontal lobes and enhanced executive functions, which will transfer to all areas of your life.  
T emporal Lobes  
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The temporal lobesare responsible for hearing, language comprehension, memory , and some emotional control. The auditory(hearing) cortex, which processes  
sound, is located at the top front of each temporal lobe. This area is responsible for receiving incoming sensory information and sending it on to the parietal  
lobes, where it is combined with other sensory information.  
A part of the left temporal lobe called W ernicke's areaaids in language comprehension. About a decade after Broca's discovery , German neurologist Carl  
W ernicke noted that patients with damage in this area could not understand what they read or heard, but they could speak quickly and easily. However , their  
speech was often unintelligible because it contained made-up words, sound substitutions, and word substitutions. This syndrome is now referred to as  
W ernicke's aphasia.  
Occipital Lobes  
The occipital lobesare responsible for, among other things, vision and visual perception. Damage to the occipital lobes can produce blindness, even if the eyes  
and their neural connection to the brain are perfectly healthy .  
Parietal Lobes  
The parietal lobesreceive and interpret bodily sensations, including pressure, pain, touch, temperature, and location of body parts. A band of tissue on the front  
of the parietal lobes, called the somatosensory cortex, processes sensory information for touch, temperature, pain, and other bodily sensations. Areas of the  
body with more somatosensory and motor cortex devoted to them (such as the hands and face) are most sensitive to touch and have the most precise motor  
control (see Concept Organizer2.1 and the Try This Y ourself).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 2.1 Body Representation of the Motor Cortex and Somatosensory Cortex  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
This drawing shows a vertical cross-section taken from the left hemisphere's motor cortex and the right hemisphere's somatosensory cortex. If body areas were  
truly proportional to the amount of tissue on the motor and somatosensory cortices that affect them, our bodies would look like the oddly shaped human figures  
draped around the outside edge of the cortex.  
Try This Y ourself T esting Y our Motor Cortex and Somatosensory Cortex  
1\.   
Motor cortexTry wiggling each of your fingers one at a time. Now try wiggling each of your toes. Note in Concept Organizer 2.1 how the area of your motor  
cortex is much larger for your fingers than for your toes, thus explaining the greater control in your fingers.  
2\.   
Somatosensory cortexAsk a friend to close his or her eyes. Using a random number of fingers (one to four), press down on the skin of your friend's back for 1  
to 2 seconds. Then ask, “How many fingers am I using?” Repeat the same procedure on the palm or back of the hand. Note the increased accuracy of reporting  
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after pressing on the hand, which explains why the area of the somatosensory cortex is much larger for the hands than for the back, as well why our hands are  
much more sensitive than our backs.  
Association Areas  
One of the most popular myths in psychology is that we use only 10% of our brains. This myth might have begun with early research which showed that  
approximately three-fourths of the cortex is “quiet” (with no precise, specific function responsive to electrical brain stimulation). These areas are not dormant,  
however . They are clearly engaged in interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed by other parts of the brain. They are called association areas  
because they associate, or connect, various areas and functions of the brain. The association areas in the frontal lobes, for example, help in decision making and  
planning. Similarly , the association area right in front of the motor cortex aids in the planning of voluntary movement.  
T wo Brains in One?  
W e mentioned earlier that the brain's left and right cerebral hemispheres control opposite sides of the body. Each hemisphere also has separate areas of  
specialization. For example, the left hemisphere is generally considered our main language center, whereas the right hemisphere specializes in nonverbal  
information and spatial perception. This is another example of localization of function, technically referred to as lateralization. Recognizing that certain  
differences between our two hemispheres do exist, some people have jumped to unwarranted conclusions about the extent of these differences (see the  
following Myth Busters).  
Myth Busters The Myth of the “Neglected Right Brain”  
Popular accounts of split-brain research have led to some exaggerated claims and unwarranted conclusions about differences between the left and right  
hemispheres. For example, courses and books directed at “right-brain thinking” and “drawing on the right side of the brain” often promise to increase our  
intuition, creativity , and artistic abilities by “waking up” our neglected and underused right brain. Contrary to this myth, research has clearly shown that the two  
hemispheres work together in a coordinated, integrated way , each making vital contributions (Garrett, [2.31]; Lilienfeld et al., [2.46]; Nitschke et al., [2.66]).  
If you are a member of a soccer or basketball team, you can easily understand this principle. Just as you and your teammates often specialize in dif ferent jobs,  
such as offense and defense, the hemispheres also divide their workload to some extent. However, like good team players, each of the two hemispheres is  
generally aware of what the other is doing.  
Interestingly , early researchers believed the right hemisphere was subordinate or nondominant to the left, with few special functions or abilities. In the 1960s,  
landmark split-brain surgeriesbegan to change this view .  
The primary connection between the two cerebral hemispheres is a thick, ribbon-like band of neural fibers under the cortex called the corpus callosum(Figure  
2.20). In some rare cases of severe epilepsy , when other forms of treatment have failed, surgeons cut the corpus callosum to stop the spread of epileptic seizures  
from one hemisphere to the other . Because this operation cuts the only direct communication link between the two hemispheres, it reveals what each half of the  
brain can do in isolation from the other . The resulting research has profoundly improved our understanding of how the two halves of the brain function.  
Figure 2.20 V iews of the  
corpus callosumIn the sideview photo on the left, a  
human brain was sliced  
vertically from the top to the  
bottom to expose the corpus  
callosum, which conveys  
information between the two  
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hemispheres of the cerebral  
cortex. The top-down  
illustration on the right has  
been cut open to show how  
fibers, or axons, of the corpus  
callosum link to both the right  
and left hemispheres. Note:  
The deep, extensive cuts  
shown in these images are to  
reveal the corpus callosum. In  
split-brain surgeries on live  
patients, only fibers within  
the corpus callosum itself are  
cut.  
For example, when someone has a stroke and loses his or her language comprehension or ability to speak, we know this generally points to damage in the left  
hemisphere, because this is where W ernicke's area, which is responsible for language comprehension, and Broca's area, which controls speech production, are  
located (refer back to Figure2.18). However, we now know that when specific regions of the brain are injured or destroyed their functions can sometimes be  
picked up by a neighboring region—even the opposite hemisphere.  
Although most split-brain surgery patients generally show very few outward changes in their behavior, other than fewer epileptic seizures, the surgery does  
create a few unusual responses. For example, one split-brain patient reported that when he dressed himself, he sometimes pulled his pants down with his left  
hand and up with his right (Gazzaniga, [2.33]). The subtle changes in split-brain patients normally appear only with specialized testing. See Concept  
Organizer2.2 for an illustration and description of this type of specialized test. Keep in mind that in actual split-brain surgery on live patients, only some fibers  
within the corpus callosum are cut (notthe lower brain structures), and this surgery is performed only in rare cases of uncontrollable epilepsy .  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 2.2 Split-Brain Research  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
Experiments on split-brain patients often present visual information to only the patient's left or right hemisphere, which leads to some intriguing results.  
Assuming you have an intact, nonsevered corpus callosum, if the same photos were presented to you in the same way, you could easily name both the  
screwdriver and the baseball. Can you explain why? The answers lie in our somewhat confusing visual wiring system (as shown in Figures D and E below).  
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In our tour of the nervous system, the principles of localization of function, lateralization, and specialization recur: dendrites receive information, the occipital  
lobes specialize in vision, and so on. Keep in mind, however, that all parts of the brain and nervous system also play overlapping and synchronized roles.  
Retrieval Practice 2.4 The Cerebral Cortex  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide  
immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Label the four lobes of the brain:  
a.frontal  
b.parietal  
c.temporal  
d.occipital  
2\.   
Imagine that you are giving a speech. Identify the cortical lobes involved when you are:  
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a.   
seeing faces in the audience ________.  
b.   
hearing questions from the audience ________.  
c.   
remembering to close your speech with the quote you memorized ________.  
d.   
noticing that your new shoes are too tight and hurting your feet ________.  
3\.   
Specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain for particular operations is known as ________.  
a. centralization  
b. asymmetrical processing  
c. normalization of function  
d. lateralization  
4\.   
Although the left and right hemispheres sometimes perform different, specialized functions, they are normally in close communication and share functions,  
thanks to the ________.  
a. thalamus system  
b. sympathetic nervous  
c. corpus callosum  
d. cerebellum  
5\.   
Describe the major functions of the two hemispheres.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 7 (Memory), you will learn more about Alzheimer's, a progressive mental deterioration that occurs most often later in life. Individuals with this  
disease may have trouble remembering facts and personal life events, or they might become lost when traveling a familiar route. Using what you have learned  
in this chapter about the functions of the fr ontal, parietal, temporal,and occipital lobesof the brain, explain how damage to each lobe may be related to the  
symptoms of Alzheimer's.


	3. Chapter 3

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3.1 Understanding Stress  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major issues and discoveries concerning stress.  
•Definestress and stressors.  
•Identifythe major sources of stress.  
•Describeour physical and cognitive reactions to stress.  
•Reviewthe benefits of stress.  
Everyone experiences stress, and we generally know what a person means when he or she speaks of being “stressed.” But scientists  
typically define stress as the interpretation of specific events, called stressors, as threatening or challenging. The resulting physical and  
psychological reactions to stressors are known as the str ess r esponse(Anisman, [3.7]; Sanderson, [3.148]; Selye, [3.156], [3.158]).  
Using these definitions, can you see how an upcoming exam on this material could be called a stressor, whereas your physical and  
psychological reactions are your stress response? In this section, we'll discuss the key sources of stress, how it affects us, and its  
occasional benefits. Before going on, test your general knowledge of stress and health in the accompanying Myth Busters.  
Myth Busters True or False?  
________1.   
Even positive events, like graduating from college and getting married, are major sources of stress.  
________2.   
As your number of friends on social media increases, so does your level of stress.  
________3.   
Small, everyday hassles can impair your immune system functioning.  
________4.   
Police officers, nurses, doctors, social workers, and teachers are particularly prone to “burnout.”  
________5.   
Stress causes cancer .  
________6.   
Having a positive attitude can prevent cancer.  
________7.   
Optimistic personality types may cope better with stress.  
________8.   
Ulcers are caused primarily or entirely by stress.  
________9.   
W atching televised coverage of natural disasters can increase symptoms of PTSD.  
________10.   
Friendship is one of your best health resources.  
________11.   
Prolonged stress can lead to death.  
________12.   
Y ou can control or minimize most of the negative effects of stress.  
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Answer:Three out of the 12 questions are false. Looking for the correct answers, while reading the chapter, will improve your  
mastery of the material.  
Sources of Stress  
As you might imagine, literally hundreds of things can cause stress in all our lives. We will discuss job stress in the health psychology  
section at the end of this chapter . For now , we focus on what psychological science has discovered regarding several major sources of  
stress (Figure3.1).  
Figure 3.1 Major sources of stress  
Acute/Chronic Stress  
When considering specific sources of stress, it's important to note that many stressors can fit into multiple categories. For example, life  
changes generally also include conflicts and frustrations. Furthermore, stressors can be either acute or chronic—and sometimes both.  
Acute stressis generally severe, but short term, with a definite endpoint, such as the stress that results from narrowly avoiding a bike  
or car accident or missing a critical deadline. In modern times, this type of immediate, short-term arousal is almost a daily occurrence,  
and it often leads to unhealthy emotions (anxiety , tension, irritability) and physical reactions (transient increases in blood pressure and  
heart rate, dizziness, chest pains). Thankfully , because acute stress is short term, it generally doesn't lead to the type of extensive  
damage associated with long-term stress.  
In contrast to acute, short-term stress, chronic stressis continuous. Ongoing wars, a bad marriage, domestic violence, poor working  
conditions, poverty , prejudice, and discrimination (discussed in Figure3.2) can all be significant sources of chronic stress (Chaby et  
al., [3.31]; Simons et al., [3.162]; Vliegenthart et al., [3.195]). Surprisingly , chronic stress can suppress sexual functioning in both men  
and women (Hamilton & Julian, [3.69]). And confirming what many have long suspected, chronic stress can even reduce the  
probability of conception (Akhter et al., [3.3]). It can also contribute to low birth weight in infants, negatively affect the structure and  
maturation of the adolescent brain, and lead to depression across the life span (Colman et al., [3.38]; Romeo, [3.142]; Witt et al.,  
[3.202]).  
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Figure 3.2 Prejudice and discrimination as chronic  
stressorsResearch has found that the chronic stress  
resulting from prejudice and discrimination is linked  
to serious physical and mental problems, including  
being at a higher risk of heart disease, inflammation,  
substance abuse, and suicide (Kershaw et al., [3.86];  
Lea et al., [3.92]; T ebbe & Moradi, [3.185]).  
While social support can help buffer the negative effects of stress, our social lives can be chronically stressful as well. Making and  
maintaining friendships require considerable thought and energy (Ehrlich et al., [3.56]; Flannery et al., [3.59]; Sriwilai &  
Charoensukmongkol, [3.169]). For example, although people often use social media to maintain friendships, research suggests that  
your stress level increases with the number of social media “friends” you have and the amount of time you spend on social networking  
sites (AP A Press Release, [3.9]; Bevan et al., [3.18]; W egman & Brand, [3.201]). In fact, higher cortisol levels were found in teens  
who had more than 300 friends on Facebook. However, teens who acted in support of their Facebook friends—for example, by liking  
what they posted—had less stress, as measured by decreased cortisol levels (Morin-Major et al., [3.118]). (See the Study Tip for more  
information on cortisol.) And needless to say , the effects of some of the negative aspects of social media, such as social exclusion and  
cyberbullying, can be intense and long lasting (Underwood & Ehrenreich, [3.191]).  
Study Tip  
What is cortisol? As mentioned inChapter 2 and discussed throughout this chapter , cortisol is the so-called “str ess hormone” released  
fr om our adrenal glands when we're under physical or emotional stress. Cortisol releases glucose and fatty acids that provide energy  
for fast action, but as you'll see, it also suppresses our immune system. Cortisol levels are commonly measured in stress r esearch.  
Research also shows that people who spend more time on social media experience lower levels of day-to-day happiness, lower overall  
feelings of life satisfaction, and higher levels of depression due to social comparison (Brooks, [3.22]; Rosenthal et al., [3.144]; Steers  
et al., [3.171]). Why is social comparison stressful? People may feel excluded from social events that are described and photographed  
on social media, experience pressure to be entertaining when they post, and fear that they are missing vital information if they don't  
check in repeatedly (e.g., Beyens et al., [3.19]). (As you may know , this fear of missing out is so common that it has its own acronym  
—FOMO.) The good news is that limiting how often you check your social media accounts and e-mail has been shown to decrease  
stress and increase overall well-being (Kushlev & Dunn, [3.90]; Shaw et al., [3.160]).  
Life Changes  
Early stress researchers Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe ([3.74]) believed that any life changethat required some adjustment in  
behavior or lifestyle could cause some degree of stress. They also believed that exposure to numerous stressful events in a short period  
could have a direct, detrimental effect on health.  
T o investigate the relationship between change and stress, Holmes and Rahe created the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS),  
which asks people to check off all the life events they have experienced in the previous year (see the Try This Y ourself). The SRRS is  
an easy and popular tool for measuring stress, and cross-cultural studies have shown that most people rank the magnitude of their  
stressful events similarly (Bagheri et al., [3.13]; Loving & Sbarra, [3.104]; Smith et al., [3.166]). But the SRRS is not foolproof. For  
example, it only shows a correlation between stress and illness; it does not prove that stress actually causes illnesses.  
Try This Y ourself Measuring Life Changes  
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T o score yourself on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), add up the “life change units” for all life events you have  
experienced during the last year and compare your score with the following standards: 0–150 = No significant problems; 150–199 =  
Mild life crisis (33% chance of illness); 200–299 = Moderate life crisis (50% chance of illness); 300 and above = Major life crisis  
(80% chance of illness).  
Life Events Life Change Units  
Death of spouse 100  
Divorce  73  
Marital separation  65  
Jail term  63  
Death of a close family member  63  
Personal injury or illness  53  
Marriage  50  
Fired at work  47  
Marital reconciliation  45  
Retirement  45  
Change in health of family member  44  
Pregnancy  40  
Sex difficulties  39  
Gain of a new family member  39  
Business readjustment  39  
Change in financial state  38  
Death of a close friend  37  
Change to different line of work  36  
Change in number of arguments with spouse  35  
Mortgage or loan for major purchase  31  
Foreclosure on mortgage or loan  30  
Change in responsibilities at work  29  
Son or daughter leaving home  29  
Trouble with in-laws  29  
Outstanding personal achievement  28  
Spouse begins or stops work  26  
Begin or end school  26  
Change in living conditions  25  
Revision of personal habits  24  
Trouble with boss  23  
Change in work hours or conditions  20  
Change in residence  20  
Change in schools  20  
Change in recreation  19  
Change in church activities  19  
Change in social activities  18  
Mortgage or loan for lesser purchase (car, major appliance)  17  
Change in sleeping habits  16  
Change in number of family get-togethers  15  
Change in eating habits  15  
V acation  13  
Christmas  12  
Minor violations of the law  11  
Source:Reprinted from the Journal of Psychosomatic Research, V ol. III; Holmes and Rahe: “The Social Readjustment Rating Scale,”  
213–218, 1967, with permission from Elsevier .  
Conflict  
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Stress can also arise when we experience conflict—that is, when we are forced to make a choice between at least two incompatible  
alternatives. There are three basic types of conflict: approach–approach, approach–avoidance, and avoidance–avoidance(Concept  
Organizer3.1).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 3.1 T ypes of Conflict  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Process Description/Resolution Example/Resolution  
Approach–  
approach  
Forced choice between two  
options, both of which have  
equally desirable  
characteristics  
Generally easiest and least  
stressful conflict to resolve  
T wo equally desirable job offers, but  
you must choose one of them  
Y ou make a pro/con list and/or “flip a  
coin”  
Approach–  
avoidance  
Forced choice involving one  
option with equally desirable  
and undesirable  
characteristics  
Moderately difficult choice,  
often resolved with a partial  
approach  
One high-salary job offer that requires  
you to relocate to an undesirable  
location away from all your friends  
and family  
Y ou make a pro/con list and/or “flip a  
coin”; if you take the job you decide  
to only live in the new location for a  
limited time (a partial approach)  
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Process Description/Resolution Example/Resolution  
A voidance–  
avoidance  
Forced choice between two  
options, both of which have  
equally undesirable  
characteristics  
Difficult, stressful conflict,  
generally resolved with a  
long delay and considerable  
denial  
T wo equally undesirable options—bad  
job or no job—and you must choose  
one of them  
Y ou make a pro/con list and/or “flip a  
coin” and then delay the decision as  
long as possible, hoping for additional  
job offers  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
The expression on this man's face indicates that he's experiencing some form of  
conflict.  
1\.   
Can you explain how this could be both an avoidance–avoidance and an approach–  
avoidance conflict?  
2\.   
What might be the best way resolve this conflict?  
Generally , approach–approach conflicts, in which two alternatives are equally desirable, are the easiest to resolve and produce the least  
stress. A voidance–avoidance conflicts, on the other hand, are usually the most difficult and take the longest to resolve because either  
choice leads to unpleasant results. Furthermore, the longer any conflict exists, or the more important the decision, the more stress a  
person will experience.  
Common sources of conflict at work come from r ole conflict, being forced to take on separate and incompatible roles, and r ole  
ambiguity, being uncertain about the expectations and demands of your role (Lu et al., [3.105]; Memili et al., [3.116]). Mid-level  
managers who report to several supervisors, while also working among the people they are expected to supervise, often experience  
both role conflict and role ambiguity .  
Hassles  
The minor hasslesof daily living also can pile up and become a major source of stress. W e all share many hassles, such as time  
pressures and financial concerns. But our reactions to them vary . Persistent hassles, among other factors, can lead to a form of  
physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion known as burnout(Cranley et al., [3.43]; Guveli et al., [3.67]; Zysberg et al., [3.208]). This  
is particularly true for some people in chronically stressful professions, such as firefighters, police officers, doctors, and nurses. Their  
exhaustion and “burnout” then lead to more work absences, reduced productivity , and increased risk of illness.  
Some researchers believe hassles can be more significant than major life events in creating stress (Keles et al., [3.83]; Stefanek et al.,  
[3.172]). Divorce is extremely stressful, but it may be so because of the increased number of hassles it brings—changes in finances,  
child-care arrangements, longer working hours, and so on.  
Frustration  
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Like hassles, frustration, a negative emotional state resulting from a blocked goal, can cause stress. And the more motivated we are,  
the more frustrated we become when our goals are blocked. After getting stuck in traffic and being five minutes late to an important  
job interview , we may become very frustrated. However , if the same traffic jam causes us to be five minutes late showing up to a  
casual party , we may experience little or no frustration.  
Cataclysmic Events  
T errorist attacks, natural disasters, and other events that cause major damage and loss of life are what stress researchers call  
cataclysmic events. They occur suddenly and generally affect many people simultaneously . Politicians and the public often imagine  
that such catastrophes inevitably create huge numbers of seriously depressed and permanently scarred survivors. Relief agencies  
typically send large numbers of counselors to help with the psychological aftermath. However, researchers have found that because the  
catastrophe is shared by so many others, there is already a great deal of mutual social support from those touched by the same disaster,  
which may help people cope (Aldrich & Meyer, [3.4]; Ginzburg & Bateman, [3.63]).  
Nevertheless, cataclysmic events are clearly devastating to all parts of the victims' lives. In fact, people who experience extreme stress,  
such as a natural disaster like the 9.0 magnitude earthquake that hit Japan and caused devastating tsunami waves, show changes in the  
brain as long as a year later (Sekiguchi et al., [3.154]). Specifically , the hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex are smaller following  
stress. Some survivors may even develop a prolonged and severe stress reaction known as posttraumatic stress disor der (PTSD),  
which we discuss later in this chapter.  
In addition to the sources of stress just discussed, we also encounter significant stress when we must adapt to a new culture or even  
travel to another country . This is known as acculturative stress—see the following Gender and Cultural Diversity.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity What Are the Problems with Acculturative Stress?  
Have you ever dreamed of living in another country? If so, you probably imagine yourself fully enjoying all the excitement and  
adventure. But have you considered the stress and stressors that come with adapting to and surviving in the new culture? International  
travelers, military personnel, immigrants, refugees, individuals who move from one social class to another, and even Native Americans  
(like the young woman in these two photos) all fall victim to the unspoken and unforeseen stressors of adjusting their personal and  
family values, their cultural norms, and maybe even their style of dress to the new or dominant culture—see the photos. These required  
adjustments are referred to as acculturation, whereas the associated stress is called acculturative stress.  
Naturally , this type of stress places great demands on almost every individual's psychological, social, and physical well-being (Berry et  
al., [3.17]; Corona et al., 2016; Zvolensky et al., [3.207]). However, many factors determine the degree of stress. For instance,  
acculturative stress is much higher for people who are forced to emigrate and if the new country is reluctant to accept newcomers and  
distrustful of ethnic and cultural diversity .  
The degree of acculturative stress also depends in large part on the method of coping an individual chooses when entering a new  
society . Researchers have identified four major approaches to acculturation (Berry & Ataca, [3.16]; Urzúa et al., [3.193]):  
•Integration—maintaining the original cultural identity while also attempting to form a relationship with members of the new  
culture.  
•Assimilation—giving up the original cultural identity and completely adopting the new culture.  
•Separation—maintaining the original cultural identity and rejecting the new culture.  
•Marginalization—rejecting the old cultural identity while also being rejected by members of the new culture.  
T o check your understanding of these four patterns, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
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Try This Y ourself Stress and “Culture Shock”  
Imagine yourself as a college graduate offered a high-paying job that will allow you to move from a lower socioeconomic class to the  
middle or upper class. This change in your socioeconomic status will lead to considerable acculturative stress. In anticipation of this  
change, will you:  
1.Adopt the majority culture and seek positive relations with the dominant culture?  
2.Maintain your original cultural identity and avoid relations with the dominant culture?  
As you can see in the following table, if you answered “yes” to the first question, you have chosen the path to integration. If you have  
chosen you answered “no” to the second question, you will likely become marginalized.  
Y es No  
Y es Integration Separation  
No AssimilationMarginalization  
As you might expect, integrationtypically leads to the lowest levels of acculturative stress. And, marginalizationgenerally leads to the  
highest levels—presumably due to the fact that these people live on the “margins” and lack the connections and support of either the  
new or old cultures.  
Assimilationhas the second lowest level of stress, but there are still many problems, presumably due to the loss of cultural support  
from other members of the original culture who do not assimilate. Individuals in the separationgroup tend to have next to the highest  
level of acculturative stress, with even higher levels for those who are forcibly separated by prejudice and discrimination versus those  
who separate voluntarily.  
Natalie Portman is a famous actress (see the photo) who's appeared in several films, including Star W ars, V for V endetta, Black Swan,  
and Thor. She also graduated from Harvard University with a degree in psychology . Did you know that she was born in Jerusalem and  
maintains a dual citizenship in the United States and Israel? She has stated that although she really loves the States, she feels most at  
home in Jerusalem. Which of the four approaches to acculturation do you think she has followed? More importantly, can you see how  
you as an individual, or all of us as part of our general society , can celebrate diversity and thereby help to reduce the anxiety ,  
depression, alienation, and physical illnesses associated with acculturative stress?  
Reactions to Stress  
It's not str ess that kills us—it's our reaction to it.  
—Hans Selye (Austrian Endocrinologist, “Father” of Stress Research)  
As we've just seen, there are numerous factors that contribute to stress, and while it may strike without warning, it also can be a  
chronic, lifelong situation. In this section, we'll take a close look at three ways our human bodies typically respond to both short- and  
long-term stress—the GAS, SAM, and HP A systems, changes in the immune system, and alterations in our cognitive functioning.  
Stress and the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS )  
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When mentally or physically stressed, our bodies undergo several biological changes that can be detrimental to our health. In 1936,  
Canadian physician Hans Selye (SELL-yay) described a generalized physiological reaction to stress that he called the general  
adaptation syndrome (GAS). The GAS occurs in three phases—alarm, r esistance, and exhaustion—activated by efforts to adapt to any  
stressor , whether physical or psychological (Step-by-Step Diagram3.1).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 3.1 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS )  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
The three phases of Selye's syndrome (alarm, r esistance, and exhaustion) focus on the biological response to stress—particularly the  
“wear and tear” on the body that results from prolonged stress.  
Most of Selye's ideas about the GAS pattern have proven to be correct. For example, studies have found that the primary behavioral  
response to stress by both men and women is to fight or flee—the classic “fight or flight” response. However, this two-option response  
does not include situations in which we become immobile and “freeze” in the face of stress. Therefore, many researchers have now  
replaced the previous label of “fight or flight” with a new three-option response, called fight-flight-fr eeze(Corr & Cooper , [3.41];  
Friedman, [3.60]; Maack et al., [3.106]).  
Keep in mind that different stressors evoke different responses and that people vary widely in their reactions to stressors. For example,  
women are more likely to “tend and befriend” (Israel-Cohen & Kaplan, 2016; Taylor , [3.182], [3.183]; von Dawans et al., [3.196]).  
This means that when under stress women more often take care of themselves and their children (tending) while also forming strong  
social bonds with others (befriending). Interestingly , other research has found that after being administered oxytocin, the so-called  
“love hormone,” which increases bonding, attachment, and empathy , both male and female participants showed enhanced compassion  
toward women but not toward men (Palgi et al., [3.132]). These researchers explain their results by suggesting that the females' “tend  
and befriend” behaviors may have evolved from a need to help vulnerable individuals of both sexes, rather than being a result of true  
gender differences.  
What is Selye's take-home message? Our bodies are r elatively well designed for temporary stress but poorly equipped for prolonged  
str ess. As noted in Figure3.3, the same biological processes that are adaptive in the short run, such as the fight-flight-freeze response,  
can be hazardous in the long run (Papathanasiou et al., [3.133]; Russell et al., [3.147]).  
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Figure 3.3 Stress in ancient timesAs shown  
in these ancient cave drawings, the automatic  
“fight-or-flight” response was adaptive and  
necessary for early human survival. However,  
in modern society , it occurs as a response to  
ongoing situations where we often cannot  
fight or flee, and this repeated arousal can be  
detrimental to our health. (Note that this  
classic term of “fight or flight” has been  
expanded and is now called the fight-flightfreeze response.)  
Stress, the SAM System, and the HP A Axis  
T o understand these dangers, we need to first describe how our bodies (ideally) respond to stress. As you can see in Step-by-Step  
Diagram3.2, once our brains identify a stressor, our SAM (sympatho–adreno–medullary) system and HP A (hypothalamic–pituitary–  
adrenocortical) axisthen work together to increase our arousal and energy levels to deal with the stress (Anisman, [3.7]; Dieleman et  
al., [3.50]; Garrett, [3.62]). Once the stress is resolved, these systems turn off, and our bodies return to normal, baseline functioning,  
known as homeostasis.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 3.2 The SAM System and HP A Axis—T wo Co-Actors in  
Our Stress Response  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Faced with stress, our sympathetic nervous system prepares us for immediate action—fight-flight-freeze. Our slower-acting HP A axis  
maintains our arousal. Here's how it happens:  
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Unfortunately , given our increasingly stressful modern lifestyle, our bodies are far too often in a state of elevated, chronic arousal,  
which can wreak havoc on our health. Some of the most damaging effects of stress are on our immune system and cognitive  
functioning.  
Stress and the Immune System  
The discovery of the relationship between stress and our immune system has been very important. When people are under stress, the  
immune system is less able to regulate the normal inflammation system, which makes us more susceptible to diseases, such as bursitis,  
colitis, Alzheimer's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, periodontal disease, the common cold, and even neurodegenerative and psychiatric  
disorders (e.g., Campbell et al., [3.25]; Cohen et al., [3.37], [3.36]; O'Farrell & Harkin, [3.129]).  
Knowledge that psychological factors have considerable control over infectious diseases has upset the long-held assumption in biology  
and medicine that these diseases are strictly physical. The clinical and theoretical implications have been so influential that a new  
interdisciplinary field, called psychoneuroimmunology, has emerged. It studies the effects of psychological and other factors on the  
immune system.  
Prolonged, excessive, and/or chronic stress also contributes to hypertension, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), drug  
and alcohol abuse, and low birth weight (Guardino et al., [3.66]; Kim et al., [3.82]; Nicolaides et al., [3.125]). It can also lead to  
premature aging and even death (Lohr et al., [3.103]; Prenderville et al., [3.137]; Simm & Klotz, [3.161]).  
How does this happen? Cortisol, a key element of the HP A axis, plays a critical role in the long-term negative effects of stress.  
Although increased cortisol levels initially help us fight stressors, if these levels stay high, which occurs when stress continues over  
time, the body's disease-fighting immune system is suppressed. For example, studies have found that both children and adults who are  
lonely—which is another type of chronic stressor—have an impaired HP A axis and immune response, leaving their bodies vulnerable  
to infections, allergies, and many of the other illnesses cited above (Drake et al., [3.54]; Jaremka et al., [3.77]; Zilioli et al., [3.206]).  
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Stress and Cognitive Functioning  
What happens to our brains and thought processes when we're under immediate stress? As we've just seen, cortisol helps us deal with  
immediate dangers by mobilizing our energy resources. It also helps us create memories. For example, you'll discover in Chapter 7 that  
short-term stress can solidify our memories for highly emotional, “flashbulb” events.  
Unfortunately , short-term stress can interfere with the retrieval of existing memories, the laying down of new memories, and general  
information processing (Banks et al., [3.14]; Rubin et al., [3.146]). For instance, when research participants are engaged in a stressinducing task (keeping their hand in ice water for up to three minutes), they are less able to discriminate complex visual scenes than  
nonstressed participants (Paul et al., [3.134]). On a personal level, this may help explain why you forget important information during  
a big exam and why people too often become dangerously confused during a fire and are unable to find the exit. The good news is that  
once the cortisol washes out, memory performance generally returns to normal levels. Can you see why scientists believe our increased  
memories for emotional events may have evolved to help us remember what to avoid or protect in the future?  
What happens to cognitive functioning during prolonged stress? Long-term exposure to cortisol can permanently damage cells in the  
hippocampus, a key part of the brain involved in memory (Chapter 7). Furthermore, once the hippocampus has been damaged, it  
cannot provide proper feedback to the hypothalamus, so cortisol continues to be secreted, and a vicious cycle can develop ( Figure  
3.4). Perhaps even more alarming is the finding that long-term stress in mice not only disturbs their short-term memory, but also  
causes changes in the brain, leading to lasting symptoms of depression and social avoidance (McKim et al., [3.114]).  
Figure 3.4 Our brains under chronic stress  
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T o make matters worse, living below the poverty line (a chronic type of stressor) can literally make it harder to learn. For example,  
researchers have found poverty to be associated with particular differences in certain surface areas of the brain essential for academic  
success (Noble et al., [3.127]). In addition, brain scans of people currently living or growing up in poverty and experiencing  
maltreatment, compared to those from middle- and higher-income families, show several important differences in brain structures,  
including the frontal and temporal lobes, hippocampus, and gray matter (Hair et al., [3.68]; Harden et al., [3.70]; W ang et al., [3.102]).  
These areas of the brain are known to be among the most crucial for academic achievement.  
Benefits of Stress  
So far in our discussion, we've focused primarily on the harmful, negative side of stress, but there are also some positive aspects. Our  
bodies are nearly always in some state of stress, whether pleasant or unpleasant, mild or severe. Anythingplacing a demand on the  
body can cause stress.  
Eustress versus Distress  
W e often think of stress as unpleasant and threatening. This sort of stress is called distress(Selye, [3.157]). When stress is pleasant or  
perceived as a manageable challenge, it can be beneficial. As seen in athletes, business tycoons, entertainers, or great leaders, this type  
of desirable stress, called eustress, helps arouse and motivate us to persevere and accomplish challenging goals. Consider large life  
events like graduating from college, securing a highly desirable job, and getting married. Each of these occasions involves enormous  
changes in our lives and inevitable conflicts, frustration, and other sources of stress, yet for most of us they are incredibly positive  
events.  
Rather than being the source of discomfort and distress, eustr essis pleasant and motivating. It encourages us to overcome obstacles  
and even enjoy the effort and work we expend toward achieving our goals. Physical exercise is a clear example of the benefits of  
eustress. When we're working out at a gym, or even just walking in a park, we're placing some level of stress on our bodies. However,  
this stress encourages the development and strengthening of all parts of our body , particularly our muscles, heart, lungs, and bones.  
Exercise also releases endorphins (Chapter 2), which help lift depression and overall mood.  
T ask Complexity  
Keep in mind that all the achievements related to eustress require considerable effort. As you well know , going through college  
requires long hours of study , self-discipline, and delayed gratification. Research also shows that your optimal level of stress depends  
on task complexity (Figure3.5). For example, during well-learned, easy tasks, you generally need a higher level of stress to perform at  
your best. This is why athletes typically perform better during high-stakes competition—when their stress levels are higher. In contrast,  
you need a really low level of stress during a hard, complex exam in your psychology class (unless you've taken the time to work  
through a lot of practice tests, like those provided in this text). For more on the advantages of practice testing, see the following  
Research Challenge.  
Figure 3.5 Stress and task complexityAs you can see in this figure, stress can benefit performance.  
However, the level of stress should match the complexity of the task. Note how a higher level of stress helps  
keep us focused during well-learned, very easy tasks, though we may need to intentionally raise our stress  
levels to better focus our attention when the easy task demands it (a). During moderate tasks (b), we need a  
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medium level of stress for maximum performance. In contrast, during complex, demanding tasks (c), we  
need to lower our stress level. For example, during difficult exams your performance will benefit from deep  
breathing and other methods of relaxation.  
Research Challenge What Are the Hidden Benefits of Practice T esting?  
Are you planning a career as a teacher? W ould you like to improve your own performance on exams? Interesting research has found  
that practice testing(repeated self-testing as described in Chapter 1) can improve your test grades while also protecting your memory  
from the negative effects of stress (Smith et al., [3.55]).  
In this study , 120 volunteers were asked to learn a set of 30 words and 30 images displayed on a computer screen one item at a time for  
a few seconds each. After seeing each item, participants were given 10 seconds to type a sentence on a computer to simulate note  
taking. Next, participants were randomly assigned to one of two study groups. Group 1 was asked to use study practice, the traditional  
method of rereading material to memorize it. Group 2 studied using r etrieval practiceinvolving timed practice tests in which they  
freely recalled as many items as they could.  
Following a one-day break, half of each group was placed in a stress-inducing situation that required them to give an unexpected,  
impromptu speech and to solve math problems in front of two judges, three peers, and a video camera. These participants then took  
two memory tests requiring them to recall the words and images they had studied the previous day . The other half of the participants  
took the same memory tests after performing a time-matched, nonstressful task.  
Can you predict what happened? Among the participants who engaged in r etrieval practice, the stressed participants remembered  
approximately 11 of 30 items, whereas the nonstressed participants recalled 10 items. In contrast, among participants who learned  
through study practice, the stressed participants remembered 7 items, and the nonstressed participants remembered 9 items.  
In short, the traditional study practice of rereading material to memorize it was found to be less effective than retrieval practice in both  
stressful and nonstressful conditions. More importantly , numerous studies have shown that stress impairs memory (Chapter 7).  
However, this study shows that retrieval practice, discussed and promoted throughout this text, can protect memory against the adverse  
effects of stress.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did the researchers in this study (Smith et al., [3.55]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or  
experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly  
assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
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Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most  
textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will  
help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Stress and Social Support  
Even highly stressful events can, in some cases, be surprisingly beneficial. Researchers compared data for psychological adjustment,  
including anxiety and depression, in female students before the 2007 shooting at V irginia T ech (as part of an already on-going study)  
and then again after the event (Mancini et al., [3.109]). They found that some students suffered continued distress after the shooting,  
while others showed relatively long-lasting psychological improvement and resilience. On the face of it, this sounds absurd. However,  
numerous studies have shown that the outpouring of social support after mass traumas can promote greater cooperation, sharing,  
solidarity , and bonding among the survivors. One researcher described it as “a paradise built in hell” (Solnit, [3.167]).  
What's the takeaway message? The key “advantage” of mass trauma is that it often mobilizes broad-scale public support and  
cooperative behaviors—as seen in the media and public outpouring of support following the horrific Orlando, Florida, massacre in  
2016\. Sadly , the opposite is generally true after individual-level traumas, like rape or assault. Do you see then why group therapy is  
often so helpful for rape and assault survivors (Chapter 15)? Or why we all need to remember to offer strong social support to  
survivors of both mass and individual traumas—and to actively seek it for ourselves during stressful times?  
Retrieval Practice 3.1 Understanding Stress  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking  
in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
When John saw his girlfriend kissing another man at a party, he became very upset. In this situation, watching someone you love kiss  
someone else is ________, and becoming upset is ________.  
a. a stressor; a biological imperative  
b. distressing; a life change event  
c. a cataclysmic event; evidence of a burnout  
d. a stressor; a stress response  
2\.   
Briefly explain the three basic forms of conflict (approach–approach, approach–avoidance, and avoidance–avoidance).  
3\.   
A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion resulting from chronic exposure to high levels of stress with little personal  
control is called ________.  
a. primary conflict  
b. technostress  
c. burnout  
d. secondary conflict  
4\.   
As Michael watches his instructor pass out papers, he suddenly realizes that this is the first major exam and he is unprepared. Which  
phase of the GAS is he most likely experiencing?  
a. resistance  
b. alarm  
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c. exhaustion  
d. phase out  
5\.   
Stress that is pleasant and motivates us to accomplish challenging goals ________.  
a. can be beneficial  
b. is called eustress  
c. is described by both a and b  
d. is described by none of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), you discovered that the sympatheticand parasympathetic nervous systems  
work together in a way that helps us to adapt to the demands of the environment, especially emergencies. How have the stressors in  
our modern world (sources of stress) challenged the adaptability and effectiveness of these two systems?  
.  
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Print this page  
3.2 Stress and Illness  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review how stress contributes to major illnesses.  
•Explainhow stress affects ulcers.  
•Discusshow chronic pain is affected by stress.  
•Describethe role of stress in cancer .  
•Discusshow the development of cardiovascular disorders is affected by stress.  
•Explainthe role of stress in PTSD and the methods used to cope with this disorder .  
A healthy body is a guest-chamber for the soul; a sick body is a prison.  
—Francis Bacon (Philosopher , Statesman, Scientist)  
As we've just seen, stress has dramatic effects on our bodies. This section explores how stress is related to five  
serious conditions—ulcers, chronic pain, cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder  
(PTSD).  
Ulcers  
Ulcersare lesions in the lining of the stomach, esophagus, or upper small intestine that can be quite painful. In  
extreme cases, they may even be life-threatening. Beginning in the 1950s, psychologists reported strong evidence  
that stress can lead to ulcers. Studies found that people who live in stressful situations have a higher incidence of  
ulcers than people who don't. And numerous experiments with laboratory animals have shown that stressors, such  
as shock, water-immersion, or confinement to a very small space, can produce ulcers in a few hours in some  
laboratory animals (e.g., Landeira-Fernandez, [3.91]; Shakya et al., [3.159]; Sun et al., [3.177]).  
The relationship between stress and ulcers seemed well established until researchers identified a bacterium  
(Helicobacter pylori, or H. pylori) that appeared to be associated with ulcers. Later studies confirmed that this  
bacterium clearly damages the stomach wall and that antibiotic treatment helps many patients. However,  
approximately 75% of normal, healthy people's stomachs also have the bacterium. This suggests that the bacterium  
may cause the ulcer, but only in people who are compromised by stress. Furthermore, behavior modification and  
other psychological treatments, used alongside antibiotics, can help ease ulcers. In other words, although stress by  
itselfdoes not cause ulcers, it is a contributing factor, along with other psychological and biological factors (Jaul et  
al., [3.78]; Southwick & W atson, [3.168]; W ang et al., [3.197]).  
Study Tip  
Many believe that ulcers are “psychosomatic” and that this means they're imaginary. However , psychosomatic  
(psyche means “mind” and soma means “body”) refers to symptoms or illnesses that are caused or aggravated by  
psychological factors, especially stress (Lipowski, [3.100]). Most researchers and health practitioners believe that  
almost all illnesses are partly psychosomatic in this sense.  
Chronic Pain  
Imagine having all your pain receptors removed so that you could race cars, downhill ski, skateboard, and go to the  
dentist without ever worrying about pain. Does this sound too good to be true? Think again. Pain is essential to the  
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survival and well-being of humans and all other animals. It alerts us to dangerous or harmful situations and forces  
us to rest and recover from injury . In contrast, chronic pain, the type that comes with a chronic disease or continues  
long past the healing of a wound, generally does not serve a useful function. Sadly , an estimated 100 million  
Americans suffer from chronic pain (Lewis Rickert et al., 2016). Although psychological factors may not be the  
source of the chronic pain, they frequently intensify the related anxiety , depression, fatigue, and disability (Kerns et  
al., [3.85]; Miller-Matero et al., [3.1 17]; Vlaeyen et al., [3.194]).  
T o treat chronic pain, medical professionals often prescribe opioids. T oo often, though, these medications create  
serious side effects, and their misuse has led to epidemic forms of addiction (e.g., Jones & Comer, [3.81]). (See  
Chapter 5.) In comparison, health psychologists emphasize psychologically oriented treatments, such as behavior  
modification, biofeedback, and relaxation.  
•Behavioral interventions Chronic pain is a serious problem with no simple solution. For example, behavior  
modification programs (Chapters 6 and 15) often emphasize “well behaviors” such as exercise, which is known  
to produce an increase in endorphins and a resulting decrease in pain (Chapter 2). Unfortunately , chronic pain  
patients tend to decrease their activity and exercise, but behavior modification programs have helped to address  
this problem (Nicassio & Azizoddin, [3.124]; Noel et al., [3.128]).  
•Biofeedback In biofeedback, information about physiological functions, such as heart rate and blood pressure,  
is monitored, and the feedback helps the individual learn to control these functions (see Figure3.6). Such  
feedback helps reduce some types of chronic pain.  
•Mindfulness-based meditation and relaxation techniques Because the pain always seems to be there, chronic  
pain sufferers tend to talk and think about their pain whenever they are not thoroughly engrossed in an activity .  
W atching TV shows or films, attending parties, or performing any activity that diverts attention from the pain  
seems to reduce discomfort. Attention might also be diverted with mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)  
meditation programs and special relaxation techniques like those discussed later in this chapter (Day, [3.46]).  
Relaxation techniques are taught in some childbirth classes. These techniques focus the birthing mother's  
attention on breathing and relaxing the muscles, which helps distract her attention from the fear and pain of the  
birthing process. Similar techniques also can be helpful to chronic pain sufferers. Remember , however , that  
these techniques do not eliminate the pain. They merely allow the person to ignore it for a time.  
Figure 3.6 Biofeedback and pain controlMost  
biofeedback with chronic pain patients is done with  
the electromyograph (EMG), which measures  
muscle tension by recording electrical activity in the  
skin. The EMG is most helpful when the pain  
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involves extreme muscle tension, such as tension  
headache and lower back pain. Electrodes are  
attached to the site of the pain, and the patient is  
instructed to relax. When sufficient relaxation is  
achieved, the machine signals with a tone or a light.  
The signal serves as feedback, enabling the patient  
to learn how to relax. Research shows that  
biofeedback is helpful and sometimes as effective as  
more expensive and lengthier forms of treatment  
(Jensen et al., [3.79]; Urban, [3.192]). Apparently , it  
is successful because it teaches patients to recognize  
patterns of emotional arousal and conflict that affect  
their physiological responses. This self-awareness,  
in turn, enables them to learn self-regulation skills  
that help control their pain.  
Cancer  
Canceris among the leading causes of death for adults in the United States. It occurs when a particular type of  
primitive body cell begins rapidly dividing and then forms a tumor that invades healthy tissue. Unless destroyed or  
removed, the tumor eventually damages organs and causes death. In a healthy person, whenever cancer cells start  
to multiply , the immune system checks the uncontrolled growth by attacking the abnormal cells ( Figure3.7).  
Figure 3.7 The immune systemThe  
actions of a healthy immune system  
are shown here. The round red  
structures are leukemia cells. Note  
how the yellow killer cells are  
attacking and destroying the cancer  
cells.  
More than 100 types of cancer have been identified. They appear to be caused by an interaction between  
environmental factors (such as diet, smoking, and pollutants) and inherited predispositions. Note that research does  
notsupport the popular myths that stress directly causescancer or that positive attitudes can prevent it (Chang et  
al., [3.33]; Coyne & T ennen, [3.42]; Lilienfeld et al., [3.99], [3.98]).  
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Of course, this is not to say that developing a positive attitude and reducing our stress levels aren't worthy health  
goals. As you read earlier, prolonged stress causes the adrenal glands to release hormones that negatively affect the  
immune system, and a compromised immune system is less able to resist infection or to fight off cancer cells  
(Antoni et al., [3.8]; Bick et al., [3.20]). In addition, it seems that stress can increase the spread of cancer cells to  
other organs, including the bones, which decreases the likelihood of survival (Chang et al., [3.32]; Levi et al.,  
[3.94]).  
Cardiovascular Disorders  
Cardiovascular disorders contribute to over half of all deaths in the United States (American Heart Association,  
[3.5]). Understandably , health psychologists are concerned because stress is a major contributor to these deaths  
(Marchant, [3.1 10]; Orth-Gomér et al., [3.131]; T aylor-Clift et al., [3.184]).  
Heart diseaseis a general term for all disorders that eventually affect the heart muscle and lead to heart failure.  
Coronary heart diseaseoccurs when the walls of the coronary arteries thicken, reducing or blocking the blood  
supply to the heart. Symptoms of such disease include angina(chest pain due to insufficient blood supply to the  
heart) and heart attack(death of heart muscle tissue).  
How does stress contribute to heart disease? Recall that one of the major brain and nervous system autonomic  
reactions to stress is the release of epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol into the bloodstream. These hormones  
increase heart rate and release fat and glucose from the body's stores to give muscles a readily available source of  
energy . If no physical action is taken (and this is most likely the case in our modern lives), the fat that was released  
into the bloodstream is not burned as fuel. Instead, it may adhere to the walls of blood vessels. These fatty deposits  
are a major cause of blood-supply blockage, which, in turn, causes heart attacks. Of course, the stress-related  
buildup of fat in our arteries is not the only risk factor associated with heart disease. Other factors include smoking,  
obesity , a high-fat diet, and lack of exercise (Christian et al., [3.35]; Diaz et al., [3.49]; Steptoe et al., [3.174]).  
T o end on a more positive note, one group of researchers found that no matter how many, or how few , stressful  
events a person faces, those who perceive the events as more stressful or who experience a greater spike in  
negative emotions may be at the greatest risk for heart disease (Sin et al., [3.163]). This means that the resources  
for stress management discussed later in the chapter can be very helpful in changing your cognitive appraisal and  
stress reactions.  
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD )  
One of the most powerful examples of the effects of severe stress is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)  
(American Psychiatric Association, [3.6]; Anisman, [3.7]; Levine, [3.95]). PTSD is a long-lasting, trauma- and  
stressor-related disorder that overwhelms an individual's ability to cope. It can occur in both adults and children.  
Have you ever been in a serious car accident or been the victim of a violent crime? According to the National  
Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) ([3.122]), it's natural to feel afraid in dangerous situations like these. But it's  
important to note that most people who experience traumatic events do not later suffer from PTSD. For example,  
our introductory famous figure, Marcus Luttrell, and his twin brother, Morgan, both served as Navy SEALs, and  
both experienced similar war-time traumas, yet neither developed PTSD. Interestingly , Morgan Luttrell, driven by  
his long-term goal to find the best treatment for veterans suffering from PTSD, went back to school and is now an  
accomplished neuroscientist (T arrant, [3.179]).  
For people who do suffer from PTSD, the normal fight-flight-freeze response is modified or damaged. This change  
helps explain why people with PTSD continue to experience extreme stress and fear, even when they're no longer  
in danger .  
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PTSD's essential feature is the development of characteristic symptoms (T able3.1) following exposure to one or  
more traumatic events (American Psychiatric Association, [3.6]). These symptoms may continue for months or  
even years after the event. Unfortunately , some victims of PTSD turn to alcohol and other drugs to cope, which  
generally compounds the problem (Goldstein et al., [3.64]; McLean et al., [3.115]; Smith et al., [3.55]).  
T able3.1Key Characteristics of PTSD  
1.Direct exposure to traumathrough experiencing it personally , witnessing it, or discovering that it happened to  
others. Also, direct, ongoing exposure to traumatic events (e.g., first responders).  
2.Recurrent, intrusive symptoms, including thoughts, feelings, memories, and bad dreams. Also, reexperiencing the trauma over and over through flashbacks.  
3.A voidance symptoms, such as feeling emotionally numb, losing interest in previously enjoyable activities,  
avoiding memories of the trauma and/or stimuli associated with the traumatic event.  
4.Chronic heightened arousal and reactivity, including irritability , being easily startled, sleep disturbances,  
angry outbursts, and reckless/self-destructive behaviors.  
Sadly , one of the most dangerous problems associated with PTSD is the increased risk for suicide. Did you know  
that more U.S. troops have died from suicide over the last 15 years than have been killed in Afghanistan (National  
V eterans Foundation, [3.123])? The precise cause for this astronomically high number of suicides is unknown, but  
experts point to PTSD, along with combat injuries and the difficulties of readjusting to civilian life (Ashrafioun et  
al., [3.10]; Finley et al., [3.58]; Legarreta et al., [3.93]).  
Lest you think PTSD only develops from military experiences, keep in mind that victims of natural disasters,  
physical or sexual assault, and terrorist attacks also may develop PTSD. In addition, research shows that simply  
watching televised coverage of major natural disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and tornados, can increase  
the number of PTSD symptoms, especially in children who are already experiencing other symptoms (Holman et  
al., [3.73]; W eems et al., [3.200]).  
PTSD is not a new problem. During the Industrial Revolution, workers who survived horrific railroad accidents  
sometimes developed a condition very similar to PTSD. It was called “railway spine” because experts thought the  
problem resulted from a twisting or concussion of the spine. Later, doctors working with combat veterans referred  
to the disorder as “shell shock” because they believed it was a response to the physical concussion caused by  
exploding artillery . T oday , we know that PTSD is caused by exposure to extraordinary stress (Figure3.8).  
Figure 3.8 Stress and PTSDPeople who  
experience traumatic events, such as the  
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survivors of the 2016 nightclub shooting  
massacre in Orlando, Florida, may develop  
symptoms of PTSD.  
What can we do to help? Professionals have had success with various forms of therapy and medication for PTSD  
(e.g., Castillo et al., [3.28]; Keller & Tuerk, [3.84]; W atts et al., [3.199]). They've also offered several constructive  
tips for the general public (see T able3.2 and the Try This Y ourself feature).  
T able3.2Seven Important Tips for Coping with Crisis  
1.If you have experienced a traumatic event, recognize your feelings about the situation, and talk to others  
about your fears. Know that these feelings are a normal response to an abnormal situation.  
2.If you know someone who has been traumatized, be willing to patiently listen to that person's account of the  
event, pay attention to his or her feelings, and encourage him or her to seek counseling, if necessary.  
3.Be patient and kind to yourself and others. It's natural to feel anxious, helpless, and/or frustrated, but give  
yourself a break. Also, tempers are short in times of crisis, and others may be feeling as much stress as you.  
4.Recognize normal crisis reactions, such as sleep disturbances and nightmares, withdrawal, reversion to  
childhood behaviors, and trouble focusing on work or school.  
5.Be mindful of your time. Feel free to say “NO” to others. Limit your news watching. Take time with your  
children, spouse, life partner, friends, and coworkers to do something you enjoy .  
6.Get plenty of sleep and avoid alcohol and other drugs. W e all need a good night's sleep, especially during  
times of crisis. Alcohol and other drugs interfere with sleep and good decision making.  
7.Study and adopt stress management skills, such as the ones discussed in this chapter.  
Source:Based on information from Pomponio, [3.136]; Thorn, [3.188]; Tips for Coping with Crisis, [3.189].  
Try This Y ourself  
Helping Someone with PTSD  
If you have a friend or loved one with PTSD, it may feel like you're walking through a minefield when you're  
attempting to provide comfort and help. What do the experts suggest that you say (or NOT say)? Here are a few  
general tips:  
What NOT to Do  
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Don't trivialize the disease.Like cancer or heart disease, PTSD, and its associated anxiety and depression, is a  
critical, life-threatening illness. Asking someone, “What do you have to be depressed about?” is akin to asking  
cancer patients why they have cancer or why they don't just smile and exercise more.  
Don't be a cheerleader or a Mr . or Ms. Fix-It.Y ou can't pep-talk someone out of PTSD, and offering cheap  
advice or solutions is the best way to ensure that you'll be the last person he or she will turn to for help.  
What Can Y ou Do?  
Educate yourself.Y our psychology instructor, your college library , almost any book store, and the Internet all  
provide a wealth of information.  
Be Rogerian.Carl Rogers's four key qualities of communication (empathy , unconditional positive r egar d,  
genuineness, and active listening, discussed in Chapter 13) are probably the best, and safest, approaches in any  
situation—including talking with someone who's suffering from PTSD.  
Get help!The most dangerous problem associated with PTSD, and its commonly associated serious depression, is  
the high risk of suicide. If a friend or loved one mentions suicide, or if you believe he or she is considering it, get  
help fast! Consider calling the police for emergency intervention, contacting a trusted friend or family member of  
the person, or calling the toll-free 7/24 hotline 1-800-SUICIDE.  
Retrieval Practice 3.2 Stress and Illness  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly explain why psychosomatic illnesses are not imaginary.  
2\.   
Which of the following is true?  
a. Stress is a leading cause of cancer.  
b. Positive attitudes alone can prevent cancer.  
c. Both of these options.  
d. None of these options.  
3\.   
Stress may contribute to heart disease by releasing ________and ________, which increase the level of fat in the  
blood.  
a. angina; cortisol  
b. hormones; GABA  
c. cynical hostility; hormones  
d. epinephrine (adrenaline); cortisol  
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4\.   
Someone who experiences flashbacks, nightmares, and other forms of recurring intrusive symptoms following a  
life-threatening or other horrifying event may be ________.  
a. suffering from a substance abuse disorder  
b. experiencing symptoms of PTSD  
c. having a psychotic breakdown  
d. weaker than people who take such events in stride  
5\.   
________is not one of the key characteristics of PTSD identified in the text.  
a. Exposure to serious trauma  
b. Persistent avoidance of stimuli related to traumatic event  
c. Marked changes in arousal and reactivity  
d. Animistic behaviors  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you discovered that the effects of prolonged stress may result in permanent damage to the  
hippocampus. Describe what you learned about the hippocampus in Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological  
Foundations), and discuss what cognitive changes we might see in someone experiencing PTSD.  
.  
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Print this page  
3.3 Stress Management  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major factors involved in managing and coping with stress.  
•Discussthe role of cognitive appraisal in coping with stress.  
•Describehow personality and individual differences affect stress responses.  
•Summarizethe major resources for healthy living  
As noted at the beginning of this chapter, stress is a normal, and necessary , part of our lives. Therefore, str ess  
managementis the goal—not stress elimination (see the Try This Y ourself). Although our initial bodily responses  
to stress are largely controlled by nonconscious, autonomic processes, our higher brain functions can help us avoid  
the serious damage caused by chronic overarousal. The key is to consciously recognize when we are overstressed  
and then to choose resources that activate our parasympathetic relaxation response. In this section, we'll first  
discuss the role of cognitive appraisal in coping with stress. Then, we'll explore how personality and individual  
differences affect our coping responses. Finally , we'll present several major resources for healthy living and stress  
management.  
Try This Y ourself Stress and Illness  
Think about a time when you were experiencing stress, such as studying for a difficult exam, having a fight with a  
loved one, or struggling to pay your bills. Both minor and major stressors can decrease the effectiveness of your  
immune system and thereby lead to both short- and long-term health problems. Given the previous discussion of all  
the ill effects of stress, can you see why it's so important not only to reduce your stress levels but also to improve  
your personal coping skills?  
Cognitive Appraisal  
Because we can't escape stress, we need to learn how to effectively cope with it. Our first approach to stress  
management generally begins with a cognitive appraisal of the stressor (Step-by-Step Diagram3.3).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 3.3 Cognitive Appraisal and Stress  
Management  
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This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to  
appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Research suggests that when facing a serious stressor, we begin with a primary appraisalprocess to evaluate the  
threat and decide whether it's harmless or potentially harmful. Next, during secondary appraisal, we assess our  
available and potential resources for coping with the stress. Then, we generally choose either emotion-or problemfocusedmethods of coping. When attempting to resolve complex stressors, or a stressful situation that is in flux, we  
often combine both emotion- and problem-focused approaches.  
One of the biggest challenges during the process of stress management is deciding whether to try to change the  
stressor itself or our emotional reactions to it. Problem-focused copingstrategies work to deal directly with a  
stressor in order to eventually decrease or eliminate it (Delahaij & van Dam, [3.47]; Dixon et al., [3.52];  
Mayordomo-Rodriquez et al., [3.113]). W e tend to choose this approach, and find it most effective, when we have  
some control over a stressful situation. Although you may feel like you have little or no control over exams and  
other common academic stressors, our students have found that by using the various study tools provided  
throughout this text and on our text's website, they increased their personal control and success, while also  
decreasing their stress levels. Do you see how this approach of studying and adopting new study skills would be a  
good example of problem-focused coping?  
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Many times, however, it seems that little or nothing can be done to alter the stressful situation, so we turn to  
emotion-focused coping, in which we attempt to relieve or regulate our emotional reactions. If you're dealing with  
the death of a loved one, the pain and stress are out of your control. T o cope with your painful emotions, you might  
try distraction, meditation, journaling, or talking to a friend and/or therapist, which are all healthy forms of  
emotion-focused coping.  
Keep in mind that emotion-focused forms of coping can't change the problem, but they do make us feel better  
about the stressful situation. For example, teenagers who are asked to think about the “silver lining” benefits of a  
recent stressful event—such as having a traffic accident or losing a valued relationship—show increases in positive  
mood and decreases in negative mood (Rood et al., [3.143]). Instant messaging (IM) also helps distressed teenagers  
share their emotions and receive immediate social support and advice (Dolev-Cohen & Barak, [3.53]).  
As you'll discover in Chapter 13, Sigmund Freud believed we commonly turn to another cognitive approach when  
facing uncomfortable or painful stressors. W e use defense mechanisms, in which we unconsciously distort reality  
to protect our egos and to avoid anxiety (see T able3.3 and Chapter 13). These defense mechanisms can sometimes  
act as a beneficial type of emotion-focused coping. For example, when you're really angry at your boss and realize  
that you can't safely express that anger , you may take out your frustration by aggressively hitting a punching bag at  
the gym. This would be a healthy use of defense mechanisms. But if taken too far, defense mechanisms can be  
destructive. If we fail to get a promotion, and then resort to elaborate excuses (rationalizations) for our failure, it  
may block us from seeing a situation more clearly and realistically, which in turn can prevent us from developing  
valuable skills (see the cartoon). In short, occasional use of defense mechanisms can be beneficial, as long as it's  
not excessive and does not distort reality (Hertel et al., [3.72]; Levine, [3.95]).  
T able3.3Sample Psychological Defense Mechanisms  
Defense  
Mechanism  
Description Example  
Repression  
Preventing painful or unacceptable thoughts  
from entering consciousness  
Forgetting the details of a tragic accident  
Sublimation  
Redirecting socially unacceptable impulses into  
acceptable activities  
Redirecting aggressive impulses by becoming a  
professional fighter  
Denial Refusing to accept an unpleasant reality Alcoholics refusing to admit their addiction  
Rationalization  
Creating a socially acceptable excuse to justify  
unacceptable behavior  
Justifying cheating on an exam by saying  
“everyone else does it”  
Intellectualization  
Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful  
experience by focusing on abstract thoughts,  
words, or ideas  
Discussing your divorce without emotion while  
ignoring the hidden, underlying pain  
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Defense  
Mechanism  
Description Example  
Projection  
Transferring unacceptable thoughts, motives, or  
impulses to others  
Becoming unreasonably jealous of your mate  
while denying your own attraction to others  
Reaction  
formation  
Not acknowledging unacceptable impulses and  
overemphasizing their opposite  
Promoting a petition against adult bookstores  
even though you are secretly fascinated by  
pornography  
Regression Reverting to immature ways of responding  
Throwing a temper tantrum when a friend  
doesn't want to do what you'd like  
Displacement  
Redirecting impulses from the original source  
toward a less threatening person or object  
Y elling at a coworker after being criticized by  
your boss  
Personality and Individual Differences  
W e've just seen how problem- and emotion-focused coping, as well as defense mechanisms, are used in stress  
management. Research has also found that various personality types and individual differences directly affect how  
we cope with stress. In this section, we discuss the various effects of locus of control, positive affect, and  
optimism.  
Locus of Control  
Perhaps one of the most important personal resources for stress management is a sense of personal control. People  
who believe they are the “masters of their own destiny” have what is known as an internal locus of control.  
Believing they control their own fate, they tend to make more effective decisions and healthier lifestyle choices,  
are more likely to follow treatment programs, and more often find ways to positively cope with a situation.  
Do you see how an internal locus of control is closely related to a growth mindsetand grit, and how our  
introductory famous figure, Marcus Luttrell, demonstrates all three of these traits? He obviously believes in his  
personal control, and his growth mindset and grit are shown when he talks about the Navy SEALS (including  
himself): “The real battle is won in the mind. It's won by guys who understand their areas of weakness, who sit and  
think about it, plotting and planning to improve. Attending to the detail. W ork on their weaknesses and overcome  
them. Because they can” (Marcus Luttrell, n.d.).  
Conversely , people with an external locus of controlbelieve that chance or outside forces beyond their control  
determine their fate. Therefore, they tend to feel powerless to change their circumstances, are less likely to make  
effective and positive changes, and are more likely to experience high levels of stress (e.g., Au, [3.12]; Rotter,  
[3.145]; Zhang et al., [3.204]).  
Positive Affect  
Have you ever wondered why some people survive in the face of great stress (personal tragedies, demanding jobs,  
or an abusive home life) while others do not? One answer may be that these “survivors” have a unique trait called  
positive affect, meaning they experience and express positive emotions, including feelings of happiness, joy ,  
enthusiasm, and contentment. Interestingly , people who are high in positive affect also experience fewer colds and  
car accidents, as well as better sleep and an enhanced quality of life (Anisman, [3.7]; Pollock et al., [3.135];  
T avernier et al., [3.180]).  
Positive states are also sometimes associated with fewer physical symptoms, more biological indicators of good  
health, and less vision impairment (Cameron et al., [3.24]; Liu et al., [3.86]; Zhang & Han, [3.205]). In addition,  
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one study that followed 3,777 participants for over 22 years found a significant association between positive affect  
and a longer life, even after adjustment for factors such as prior medical conditions (Gana et al., [3.61]). These  
studies provide intriguing evidence for the mind-body link.  
Can you see how having positive affect is closely associated with a good sense of humor? Humor is one of the best  
methods you can use to reduce stress. The ability to laugh at oneself and at life's inevitable ups and downs allows  
us to relax and gain a broader perspective (Figure3.9).  
Figure 3.9 Positive affect in actionBased on his smile  
and cheery wave, it looks like this patient may be one  
of those lucky people with a naturally positive outlook  
on life. Can you see how this approach might help him  
cope and recuperate from his serious injuries?  
Optimism  
Positive affect is also closely associated with optimism, the expectation that good things will happen in the future  
and bad things will not. If you agree with statements such as, “I tend to expect the best of others,” or “I generally  
think of several ways to get out of a difficult situation,” you're probably an optimist. The opposite is true if you  
tend to be a pessimist.  
As you might expect, optimists are generally much better at stress management. Rather than seeing bad times as a  
constant threat and assuming personal responsibility for them, they generally assume that bad times are temporary  
and external to themselves. Optimists also tend to have better overall physical and psychological health, and they  
typically have longer and overall happier lives (Denovan & Macaskill, [3.48]; Hernandez et al., [3.71]; Kim et al.,  
[3.87]).  
Why are optimists healthier? To test this question, researchers in one study tracked 135 older adults (aged 60+)  
over six years (Jobin et al., [3.80]). Participants were asked about the level of stress they perceived in their day-today lives and whether they would rate themselves as optimists or pessimists. Saliva samples were then collected  
from each individual to measure his or her current level of cortisol. The results revealed that compared to selfdescribed optimists, people who described themselves as pessimists had higher cortisol levels, a higher baseline  
level of stress, and more difficulty coping with stress. The researchers suggested that the optimists enjoyed better  
health because their lower cortisol levels and better coping strategies reduced the “wear-and-tear” of the biological  
effects of stress on their bodies.  
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The best news is that according to Martin Seligman, a leader in the field of positive psychology, optimism can be  
learned (Seligman, [3.155]). In short, he believes optimism requires careful monitoring and challenging of our  
thoughts, feelings, and self-talk. For example, if you don't get a promotion at work or you receive a low grade on  
an exam, don't focus on all the negative possible outcomes and unreasonably blame yourself. Instead, force  
yourself to think of alternate ways to meet your goals, and develop specific plans to improve your performance.  
Chapter 15 offers additional help and details for overcoming faulty thought processes.  
Resources for Healthy Living  
As we've just seen, various cognitive appraisal techniques and personality and individual differences have  
significant effects on our stress management. In this section, we'll provide specific, evidence-based resources for  
stress management. Perhaps the most researched approach comes from the recent mindfulness-based stress  
reduction (MBSR)programs, which are based on developing a state of consciousness that attends to ongoing  
events in a receptive, nonjudgmental way . The practice of MBSR has proven to be particularly effective in  
managing stress and treating mood disturbances, and it's even been linked to positive, and perhaps permanent, cell  
and brain changes (Creswell et al., [3.44]; Felleman et al., [3.57]; Mallya & Fiocco, [3.108]). For more good news  
about mindfulness, see the following Psychology and Y our Personal Success.  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success Can Mindfulness Improve Y our  
GP A ?  
Researchers interested in the potential usefulness of mindfulness training in academic settings assigned students  
either to a seven-week mental training program designed to tame mind wandering and increase focus or to a  
control group that received no training (Morrison et al., [3.119]). Students in the two groups did not differ at the  
start of the semester on levels of attention and mind wandering (two factors that lead to lower academic  
performance). However, by the end of the semester , students in the control group showed diminished attention and  
increased mind wandering. In contrast, those who participated in the mindfulness program showed significant  
improvements in attention and no increases in reported mind wandering.  
Related studies with college students who engage in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) programs show  
improvements in reading comprehension and working memory capacity , as well as better overall adjustment to the  
college environment (Mrazek et al., [3.120]; Ramler et al., [3.139]). For younger children, a school-based  
mindfulness program, which includes breathing and movement exercises, helps many elementary school children  
manage their stress better and become more optimistic, more helpful, more caring, better liked by peers, and even  
better at math (Schonert-Reichl et al., [3.152]).  
Another effective and frequently overlooked resource for stress management is social support. When we are faced  
with stressful circumstances, our friends and family often help us take care of our health, listen, hold our hands,  
make us feel important, and provide stability to offset the changes in our lives.  
This support can help offset the stressful effects of chronic illness, pregnancy , physical abuse, job loss, and work  
overload. People who have greater social support also experience better health outcomes, including greater  
psychological well-being, greater physical well-being, faster recovery from illness, and a longer life expectancy  
(Diener & T ay , [3.51]; Flannery et al., [3.59]; Martínez-Hernáez et al., [3.112]). Even a single close childhood  
friendship seems to protect children in lower socioeconomic circumstances (which is an ongoing stressor) from  
several negative psychological risk factors (Graber et al., 2015).  
These findings may help explain why married people live longer than unmarried people (Liu, [3.101]) and why a  
married person with cancer is 20% less likely to die from the disease than an unmarried person (Aizer et al., [3.2]).  
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So what is the take-home message from this emphasis on social support? Don't be afraid to offer help and support  
to others—or to ask for the same for yourself!  
Six additional resources for healthy living and stress management are exercise, social skills, behavior change,  
stressor control, material resources, and relaxation. These resources are summarized in Concept Organizer3.2.  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 3.2 Six Additional Stress Resources  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear  
on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Exercise  
Exercising and keeping fit help minimize anxiety and depression, which  
are associated with stress. Exercise also helps relieve muscle tension;  
improves cardiovascular efficiency; and increases strength, flexibility , and  
stamina.  
Those who do not find time for exercise will have to find time for illness.  
—Edward Smith-Stanley  
Social  
skills  
People who acquire social skills (such as knowing appropriate behaviors  
for certain situations, having conversation starters up their sleeves, and  
expressing themselves well) suffer less anxiety than people who do not.  
Social skills not only help us interact with others but also communicate our  
needs and desires, enlist help when we need it, and decrease hostility in  
tense situations.  
Behavior  
change  
When under stress, do you smoke, drink, overeat, zone out in front of the  
TV or computer, sleep too much, procrastinate, or take your stress out on  
others? If so, substitute healthier choices.  
Stressor  
control  
While not all stress can be eliminated, it helps to recognize and avoid  
unnecessary stress by analyzing your schedule and removing nonessential  
tasks and controlling your environment by avoiding people and topics that  
stress you. It also helps to find a less stressful job and to give yourself  
permission to say “no” to extra tasks and responsibilities.  
Material  
resources  
Money increases the number of options available for eliminating sources of  
stress or reducing the effects of stress. When faced with the minor hassles  
of everyday living, acute or chronic stressors, or major catastrophes, people  
with more money and the skills to use it effectively generally fare better .  
They experience less overall stress and can “buy” more resources to help  
them cope with what stressors they do have.  
RelaxationThere are a variety of relaxation techniques. Biofeedbackis often used in  
the treatment of chronic pain, but it is also useful in teaching people to  
relax and manage their stress. Progressive relaxationhelps reduce or  
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relieve the muscular tension commonly associated with stress (see the  
following Try This Y ourself).  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Health psychologists often advise personal and lifestyle changes like the ones in this feature. Do you think this is  
important? If so, what changes do you plan to make that would improve your own health and longevity?  
2\.   
Why do you think most people are so reluctant to make these lifestyle changes?  
Try This Y ourself Practicing Progressive Relaxation  
Y ou can use progressive relaxation techniques whenever and wherever you feel stressed, such as before or during  
an exam. Here's how:  
1.Sit in a comfortable position, with your head supported.  
2.Start breathing slowly and deeply .  
3.Let your entire body relax. Release all tension. Try to visualize your body getting progressively more relaxed  
with each breath.  
4.Systematically tense and release each part of your body , beginning with your toes. Curl them tightly while  
counting to 10. Now , release them. Note the difference between the tense and relaxed states. Next, tense your  
feet to the count of 10. Then relax them and feel the difference. Continue upward with your calves, thighs,  
buttocks, abdomen, back muscles, shoulders, upper arms, forearms, hands and fingers, neck, jaw , facial  
muscles, and forehead. Try practicing progressive relaxation twice a day for about 15 minutes each time. Y ou  
will be surprised at how quickly you can learn to relax—even in the most stressful situations.  
Retrieval Practice 3.3 Stress Management  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
What is the major difference between emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping?  
2\.   
Freud's term for the strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality is known as  
________.  
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a. “rose-colored glasses” syndrome  
b. defense mannerisms  
c. ego-denial apparatus  
d. defense mechanisms  
3\.   
Research suggests that people with ________have less psychological stress than those with ________.  
a. an external locus of control; an internal locus of control  
b. an internal locus of control; an external locus of control  
c. an attributional coping style; a person-centered coping style  
d. an emotion-focused coping style; a problem-focused coping style  
4\.   
Demonstrating positive emotions, including feelings of happiness, joy, enthusiasm, and contentment, is known as  
________.  
a. positive defect  
b. the positivity principle  
c. the Rogerian technique  
d. positive affect  
5\.   
Which of the following is notone of the ways to cope with stress outlined in the chapter?  
a. exercise  
b. sense of humor  
c. social support  
d. stimulant drugs  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
1\.   
In the Prologue, you learned about Critical Thinking Components (CTCs) such as empathizing (affective),  
accepting change (affective), and resisting overgeneralization (cognitive). Describe how practicing these CTCs  
may help you to cope with stressors in your life.  
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2\.   
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), you'll explore the ways in which other people influence our thoughts, feelings,  
and actions in both positive and negative ways. Consider how your social relationships and interactions with the  
people in your life (friends, family , co-workers, classmates, and professors) influence you. How do some of these  
relationships help you to cope better with your life stressors? Or perhaps contribute to them?  
.  
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3.4 Health Psychology  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the field of health psychology and the role of stress in health psychology .  
•Identifyhealth psychology .  
•Describethe work of health psychologists.  
•Discusshow health psychology can be used in the workplace.  
Did you know that according to the latest report, Americans' life expectancy recently dropped for the first time since 1993 (Centers for Disease  
Control, [3.29])? And do you recall that, as mentioned earlier, ulcers, cancer , cardiovascular disorders, and PTSD significantly affect our physical  
well-being, as well as our cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses? Such trends and effects are the concerns of health psychologists. In this  
final section, we'll discuss the work of health psychologists, followed by an exploration of stress in the workplace.  
What Is Health Psychology?  
Health psychologyis the branch of psychology that studies how biological, psychological, and social factors influence health, illness, and healthrelated behaviors. It emphasizes wellness and the prevention of illness, as well as the interplay between our physical health and our psychological  
well-being.  
As researchers, health psychologists are particularly interested in how changes in behavior can improve health outcomes (Anisman, [3.7]; Straub,  
[3.175]). They also emphasize the relationship between stress and the immune system. As we discovered earlier, a normally functioning immune  
system helps defend against disease. On the other hand, a suppressed immune system leaves the body susceptible to a number of illnesses.  
As practitioners, health psychologists can work as independent clinicians or as consultants alongside physicians, physical and occupational  
therapists, and other health care workers. The goal of health psychologists is to reduce unhealthy behaviors and psychological distress among  
suffering individuals and affected family members (see Figure3.10). They also help patients and families make critical decisions and prepare  
psychologically for surgery or other treatment. In fact, health psychologists have become so involved with health and illness that medical centers  
are one of their major employers (Considering a Career, [3.39]).  
Figure 3.10 T est your critical thinking  
1\.   
How might both the mother and child in this photo be affected  
biologically , psychologically , and socially (the biopsychosocial  
model) by alcohol abuse?  
2\.   
What could a health psychologist do to improve the well-being of  
the mother and child?  
Health psychologists also educate the public about illness preventionand health maintenance. For example, they provide public information about  
the effects of stress, smoking, alcohol, lack of exercise, and other health issues. Let's look at smoking as an example. T obacco use endangers both  
smokers and those who breathe secondhand smoke, so it's not surprising that health psychologists are concerned with preventing smoking and  
getting those who already smoke to stop.  
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Did you know that according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, smoking has killed 10 times the number of Americans who  
died in all our nation's wars combined (Sebelius, [3.153])? Thanks in large part to comprehensive mass media campaigns, smoke-free policies,  
restrictions on underage access to tobacco, and large price increases, adult smoking rates have fallen from about 43% in 1965 to about 15% in  
2015\. Unfortunately , cigarette smoking remains the leading cause of preventable death worldwide (Centers for Disease Control, [3.30]). Given  
that almost everyone recognizes the serious consequences of smoking, and the fact that the first puff is rarely pleasant, why do people start  
smoking? The answer can be found in the biopsychosocial model and the biology of addiction (Figure3.11).  
Figure 3.11 Understanding nicotine addiction  
In addition to encouraging smokers to stop—and urging nonsmokers never to start—health psychologists help people cope with conditions such  
as chronic pain, diabetes, and high blood pressure, as well as unhealthful behaviors such as inappropriate anger and/or lack of assertiveness. If  
you're interested in a career in this field, check with your college's counseling or career center.  
Health Psychology at W ork  
Have you ever dragged yourself home from work so tired you feared you couldn't make it to your bed? Do you think your job may be killing you?  
Y ou may be right! The Japanese even have a specific word for this type of extreme job stress, “karoshi” [KAH-roe-she], which is translated  
literally as “death from overwork.” See the following Gender and Cultural Diversity .  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Culture and Job Stress  
The term kar oshiwas first brought to public awareness in 1969 when a 29-year-old Japanese worker died of a stroke following long hours  
working under stressful conditions (Sullivan, [3.176]). During Japan's “Boom Y ears” of the 1980s and the “Lost Decade” of the 1990s, workrelated deaths and illnesses increased, and Japanese health personnel officially recognized karoshi as a valid and potentially lethal condition.  
W orking under stressful conditions 10 or 12 hours a day , 6 and 7 days a week, year after year increases the risk of death or serious disabilities  
from strokes and diabetes. And researchers have also reported that more than 10,000 Japanese workers die each year from work-related  
cardiovascular diseases. But few victims of karoshi are compensated under the Japanese workers' compensation system (Eguchi et al., [3.55];  
Steger, [3.173]; T ayama, 2014). In addition, job stressors leave many workers disoriented and suffering from serious stress even when they're not  
working. Sadly , working and living conditions in Japan are much worse today , after the country's catastrophic earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear  
accidents.  
Similar deaths, disabilities, and psychological problems from overwork have spread to other Eastern countries, and things are not much better in  
the United States and W estern Europe. Economic globalization appears to increase stressful job characteristics for the workers, such as additional  
and changing demands, low job control, effort-reward imbalances, job insecurity , and long work hours. Larger employer and economic factors,  
including precarious employment, downsizing/restructuring, privatization, and lean production, further exacerbate these problems (Nishiyama &  
Johnson, 2014; Schnall et al., [3.151]). Unfortunately , in our global economy , pressures to reduce costs and to increase productivity will  
undoubtedly continue, and job stress is a serious and growing health risk—as you'll see in the next section.  
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Job Stress  
As mentioned at the start of this chapter, among the top sources of stress for most people is job str ess, which can result from unemployment, job  
change, and/or worries about job performance (see the photo). And, as we've just seen, job strain is increasing around the world. As in other  
countries, research in the United States finds that job stress and overwork can greatly increase the risk of dying from heart disease and stroke  
(Biering et al., [3.21]; Charles et al., [3.34]; Huang et al., [3.75]). In fact, a large meta-analysis of the correlation between job strain and coronary  
heart disease found that people with stressful jobs are 23% more likely to experience a heart attack than those without stressful jobs (Kivimäki et  
al., [3.89]).  
Perhaps more troubling is the fact that job stress can contribute to suicide (Adams, [3.1]; Cartwright & Cooper, [3.27]; Rees et al., [3.140]).  
Studies of first responders and people in other high-risk professions, such as police officers, firefighters, paramedics, and military and medical  
personnel, have found an elevated risk of suicide, suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Carpenter et al.,  
[3.26]; Stanley et al., [3.170]; T ei et al., [3.186]). In addition, studies have found that job stress is higher in occupations that have little job security  
and make great demands on performance and concentration, with little or no allowance for creativity or opportunity for advancement (Bauer &  
Hämmig, [3.15]; Dawson et al., [3.45]; Sarafino & Smith, [3.55]).  
Intense job stressors reportedly not only increase the risk for potentially lethal physical and psychological problems, but they also leave some  
workers disoriented and suffering from serious stress even when they're not working (Calderwood & Ackerman, [3.23]; T ayama et al., [3.181];  
T etrick & Peiró, [3.187]). Stress at work can also cause serious stress at home, not only for the worker but for other family members as well.  
These risks even apply to our world's top leaders (see the following Research Challenge).  
Research Challenge When Do Losers Actually Win?  
Can a high-pressure job actually take years off your life? T o test this question, researchers in one study examined life expectancy of candidates for  
head-of-country elections—meaning president or prime minister—in a number of different countries (Olenski et al., [3.130]). Specifically , the  
researchers gathered data on the number of years candidates lived after their final campaign for office. They then compared whether candidates  
who won the election—and thus served as head of country—had fewer years of life than those who lost the election—and thus didn't serve in this  
capacity . The researchers gathered data from 17 countries (including the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada) over nearly  
300 years (from 1722 to 2015).  
As they predicted, winning an election was actually bad for candidates' health. Candidates who lost the election lived an average of an additional  
17.8 years, whereas those who won lived only an average of an additional 13.4 years. In this case, it actually hurts to win—the winning candidate  
lost an additional 4.4 years of life! Although these numbers don't explain exactly how winning an election led to a shorter life expectancy,  
researchers believe that the greater stress experienced by heads of country likely helps explain this difference.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Olenski et al., [3.130]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
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If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to  
groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptive and correlational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and  
public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better  
critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
T echnostress  
If you're not suffering from overwork, are you hassled and stressed by the ever-changing technology at your workplace? Do the expensive  
machines your employers install to “aid productivity” create stress-related problems instead? Does technology in your home allow you to  
accomplish several things simultaneously—talking on your cell phone, checking and responding to e-mails, warming your dinner in the  
microwave, doing a load of laundry—yet leave you feeling irritable and exhausted? If so, you may be suffering from the well-documented ill  
effects of technostress, a feeling of anxiety or mental pressure from overexposure or involvement with technology (Joo et al., [3.82]; Maier et al.,  
[3.107]; T arafdar et al., [3.178]).  
T echnology is often described as a way of bringing people together. Y et how often have you noticed busy executives frantically checking their email while on vacation? It's even common to see families eating at restaurants while the children play video games or send text messages and the  
parents loudly talk on separate cell phones. In fact, simply placing a cell phone on the table between two people—even if no one ever picks it up  
—leads to lower levels of closeness, connection, and meaning in their conversation (Przybylski & Weinstein, [3.138]).  
Psychology and Y our Professional Success How W ell Do Y ou Cope with Job Stress?  
Experts suggest that we can (and must) control technology and its impact on our lives. Admittedly, we all find the new technologies convenient  
and useful. But how can we control technostress? First, evaluate each new technology on its usefulness for you and your lifestyle. It isn't a yes or  
no, “technophobe” or “technophile,” choice. If something works for you, invest the energy to adopt it. Second, establish clear boundaries.  
T echnology came into the world with an implied promise of a better and more productive life. But, for many, the servant has become the master .  
Like any healthy relationship, our technology interactions should be based on moderation and balance (Ashton, [3.11]).  
Of course, technostress is not the only source of job-related stress. Y ou can score your past, current, and potential future careers on several  
additional factors in the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself W orkplace Stress  
Start by identifying what you like and don't like about your current (and past) jobs. With this information in hand, you'll be prepared to find jobs  
that will better suit your interests, needs, and abilities, which will likely reduce your stress. T o start your analysis, answer Y esor Noto these  
questions:  
1\.   
Is there a sufficient amount of laughter and sociability in my workplace?  
2\.   
Does my boss notice and appreciate my work?  
3\.   
Is my boss understanding and friendly?  
4\.   
Am I embarrassed by the physical conditions of my workplace?  
5\.   
Do I feel safe and comfortable in my place of work?  
6\.   
Do I like the location of my job?  
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7\.   
If I won the lottery and were guaranteed a lifetime income, would I feel truly sad if I also had to quit my job?  
8\.   
Do I watch the clock, daydream, take long lunches, and leave work as soon as possible?  
9\.   
Do I frequently feel stressed and overwhelmed by the demands of my job?  
10\.   
Compared to others with my qualifications, am I being paid what I am worth?  
11\.   
Are promotions made in a fair and just manner where I work?  
12\.   
Given the demands of my job, am I fairly compensated for my work?  
Now score your answers. Give yourself one point for each answer that matches the following: 1. No; 2. No; 3. No; 4. Y es; 5. No; 6. No; 7. No; 8.  
Y es; 9. Y es; 10. No; 11. No; 12. No.  
The questions you just answered are based on four factors that research shows are conducive to increased job satisfaction and reduced stress:  
supportive colleagues, supportive working conditions, mentally challenging work, and equitable rewards (Robbins, [3.141]). Y our total score  
reveals your overall level of dissatisfaction. A look at specific questions can help identify which of these four factors is most important to your job  
satisfaction—and most lacking in your current job.  
1.Supportive colleagues (items 1, 2, 3): For most people, work fills valuable social needs. Therefore, having friendly and supportive  
colleagues and superiors leads to increased satisfaction.  
2.Supportive working conditions (items 4, 5, 6): Not surprisingly , most employees prefer working in safe, clean, and relatively modern  
facilities. They also prefer jobs close to home.  
3.Mentally challenging work (items 7, 8, 9): Jobs with too little challenge create boredom and apathy , whereas too much challenge creates  
frustration and feelings of failure.  
4.Equitable rewards (items 10, 11, 12): Employees want pay and promotions based on job demands, individual skill levels, and community  
pay standards.  
Retrieval Practice 3.4 Health Psychology  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, provides immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly define health psychology and its major areas of emphasis.  
2\.   
According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, ________has killed 10 times as many Americans as all our nation's wars  
combined.  
a. cigarette smoking  
b. lack of exercise  
c. overeating  
d. heart disease  
3\.   
An increase in acetylcholine and norepinephrine is associated with ________.  
a. nicotine use  
b. any alcohol consumption  
c. binge drinking  
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d. stress  
4\.   
Once you begin smoking, you continue ________.  
a. because nicotine is addictive  
b. because nicotine increases alertness  
c. because nicotine stimulates the release of dopamine  
d. because of all of these options  
5\.   
T echnostress can be defined as ________.  
a. a feeling of euphoria from exposure or involvement with technology  
b. anxiety or mental pressure from overexposure to loud “techno” style music  
c. stress caused by an inability to cope with modern technology  
d. none of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 12 (Motivation and Emotion), you'll discover some of the factors that influence us to set goals and maintain the necessary behaviors to  
achieve those goals. Health psychologists are particularly interested in how changes in behavior can improve health outcomes. Although most of  
us know what we should do to be healthy , we sometimes lack the motivation to stick to that diet or exercise routine. Choose one aspect of  
improving your health (such as decreasing tobacco use or increasing exercise), and describe a way to motivate yourself to follow through with it.


	4. Chapter 4

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4.1 Understanding Sensation  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the key features and processes of sensation.  
•Differentiatesensation from perception.  
•Describehow raw sensory stimuli are processed and converted to signals sent to our brains.  
•Discusshow and why we reduce the amount of sensory information we receive and process.  
•Explainpsychophysics and subliminal stimuli.  
•Summarizethe factors involved in sensory adaptation and pain perception.  
The world is full of magic things, patiently waiting for our senses to grow sharper .  
—W .B. Y eats (Irish Poet, Nobel Prize in Literature)  
Psychologists are keenly interested in our senses because they are our mind's window to the outside world. W e're  
equally interested in how our mind perceives and interprets the information it receives from the senses. In this  
chapter , we separate the discussion of sensation and perception, but in our everyday life the two normally blend  
into one apparently seamless process. W e'll start with an explanation of how they differ .  
Sensation versus Perception  
Sensationbegins with specialized receptor cells located in our sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin, and  
internal body tissues). When sense organs detect an appropriate stimulus (light, mechanical pressure, chemical  
molecules), they convert it into neural impulses (action potentials) that are transmitted to our brains. Through the  
process of perception, the brain then assigns meaning to this sensory information (T able4.1). Another clever way  
to differentiate sensation and perception is shown in Figure4.1.  
Figure 4.1 Sensation and  
perceptionWhen you look at  
this drawing, do you see a  
young woman looking back  
over her shoulder or an older  
woman with her chin buried  
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in a fur collar? Y ounger  
students tend to first see a  
young woman, and older  
students first see an older  
woman. Although the basic  
sensory input (sensation)  
stays the same, your brain's  
attempt to select, organize,  
and interpret the sensory  
information (perception) turns  
the black and white lines and  
shapes into meaningful  
objects—either a young or  
old face.  
T able4.1Sensation and Perception  
Sense Stimulus Receptors Brain  
Vision Light waves Light-sensitive rods and cones in eye's retina V isual cortex in occipital lobe  
Audition  
(hearing)  
Sound waves Pressure-sensitive hair cells in ear's cochlea  
Auditory cortex in temporal  
lobe  
Olfaction  
(smell)  
Molecules dissolved on  
nose's mucous  
membranes  
Neurons in nose's olfactory epithelium  
T emporal lobe and limbic  
system  
Gustation  
(taste)  
Molecules dissolved on  
tongue  
T aste buds on tongue's surface  
Limbic system,  
somatosensory cortex, and  
frontal lobe  
Body  
senses  
V ariety of stimuli  
V ariety of receptors (the drawing on the  
right is a model of our sensory receptor cells  
for touch)  
Motor cortex in frontal lobe  
and somatosensory cortex in  
parietal lobe  
How do we unknowingly and automatically combine sensation and perception? It involves at least two processes  
(Johns & Jones, [4.49]; Sussman et al., [4.104]; van Ommen et al., [4.114]):  
•In bottom-up processing, information processing starts at the “bottom” with an analysis of smaller features,  
and then builds on them to create complete perceptions. In other words, processing begins at the sensory level  
and works “up.”  
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•During top-down processing, our brains create useable perceptions from the sensory messages based on prior  
knowledge and expectations. In this case, processing begins at the “top,” our brain's higher-level cognitive  
processes, and works “down.”  
One additional way to understand the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing is to think about  
what happens when we “see” a helicopter flying overhead in the sky. According to the bottom-up processing  
perspective, receptors in our eyes and ears record the sight and sound of this large, loud object, and send these  
sensory messages on to our brains for interpretation. The other, top-down processing, approach suggests that our  
brains quickly make a “best guess,” and interpret the large, loud object as a “helicopter,” based on our previous  
knowledge and expectations.  
As you can see, the processes of sensation and perception are complex, but also very interesting. Now that you  
understand and appreciate the overall purpose of these two processes, let's dig deeper, starting with the first step of  
sensation—processing.  
Processing  
Looking again at T able4.1, note that our eyes, ears, skin, and other sense organs all contain special cells called  
receptors, which receive and process sensory information from the environment. For each sense, these specialized  
cells respond to a distinct stimulus, such as sound waves or odor molecules. Next, during the process of  
transduction, the receptors convert the energy from the specific sensory stimulus into neural impulses, which are  
then sent on to the brain. For example, in hearing, tiny receptor cells in the inner ear convert mechanical vibrations  
from sound waves into electrochemical signals. Neurons then carry these signals to the brain, where specific  
sensory receptors detect and interpret the information.  
How does your brain differentiate between sensations, such as sounds and smells? Through a process known as  
coding, the brain interprets different physical stimuli as distinct sensations because their neural impulses travel by  
different routes and arrive at different parts of the brain (Figure4.2).  
Figure 4.2 Sensory processing within the brainNeural messages  
from the various sense organs must travel to specific areas of the  
brain in order for us to see, hear, smell, and so on. Shown here in  
the red-colored labels are the primary locations in the cerebral  
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cortex for vision, hearing, taste, smell, and somatosensation (which  
includes touch, pain, and temperature sensitivity).  
W e also have structures that purposefully reduce the amount of sensory information we receive. In this process of  
sensory r eduction, we analyze and then filter incoming sensations before sending neural impulses on for further  
processing in other parts of our brains. Without this natural filtering of stimuli, we would constantly hear blood  
rushing through our veins and feel our clothes brushing against our skin. Some level of filtering is needed to  
prevent our brains from being overwhelmed with unnecessary information.  
All species have evolved selective receptors that suppress or amplify information for survival. Humans, for  
example, cannot sense ultraviolet light, electric or magnetic fields, the ultrasonic sound of a dog whistle, or  
infrared heat patterns from warm-blooded animals, as some other animals can.  
Psychophysics  
How can scientists measure the exact amount of stimulus energy it takes to trigger a conscious experience? The  
answer comes from the field of psychophysics, which studies and measures the link between the physical  
characteristics of stimuli and the psychological experience of them.  
One of the most intriguing insights from psychophysics is that what is out there is not directly reproduced inside  
our bodies. At this moment, there are light waves, sound waves, odors, tastes, and microscopic particles touching  
us that we cannot see, hear, smell, taste, or feel. W e are consciously aware of only a narrow range of stimuli in our  
environment.  
German scientist Ernst W eber (1795–1878) was one of the first to study the smallest difference between two  
weights that could be detected (Goldstein, [4.39]; Schwartz & Krantz, [4.98]). This difference threshold, also  
known as W eber's law of just noticeable differences(JND), is the minimum difference that is consciously  
detectable 50% of the time (Figure4.3).  
Figure 4.3 Why is our difference  
threshold important?This radiologist is  
responsible for detecting the slightest  
indication of a tumor in this  
mammogram of a female breast. The  
ability to detect differences between  
stimuli (like the visual difference  
between normal and abnormal breast  
tissue) can be improved by special  
training, practice, and instruments.  
However, it's still limited by our basic  
sensory difference thresholds.  
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Another scientist, Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), expanded on W eber's law to determine what is called the absolute  
threshold, the minimum stimulation necessary to consciously detect a stimulus 50% of the time. See T able4.2 for  
a list of absolute thresholds for our various senses.  
T able4.2Examples of Human Absolute Thresholds  
Sense Absolute Threshold  
Vision A candle flame seen from 30 miles away on a clear, dark night  
Audition(hearing) The tick of an old-fashioned watch at 20 feet  
Olfaction(smell) One drop of perfume spread throughout a six-room apartment  
Gustation(taste) One teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water  
Body senses A bee's wing falling on your cheek from a height of about half an inch  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
If scientists could improve your sensory thresholds (like vision and hearing) far beyond the normal range, would  
you volunteer for this treatment? What might be the advantages and disadvantages?  
2\.   
Why is it important to test all children's vision and hearing capabilities at a young age?  
T o measure your senses, an examiner presents a series of signals that vary in intensity and asks you to report which  
signals you can detect. In a hearing test, the softest level at which you can consistently hear a tone is your absolute  
threshold. The examiner then compares your threshold with those of people with normal hearing to determine  
whether or not you have hearing loss (Figure4.4).  
Figure 4.4 Measuring the absolute and difference thresholds  
for hearing  
Many nonhuman animals have higher or lower thresholds than humans. For example, a dog's absolute and  
difference thresholds for smell are far more sensitive than those of a human. This exceptional sensitivity allows  
specially trained dogs to provide invaluable help in sniffing out dangerous plants, animals, drugs, and explosives;  
tracking criminals; and assisting in search-and-rescue operations (Byrne et al., [4.18]; Porritt et al., [4.82]). Some  
researchers believe dogs can detect hidden corrosion, fecal contamination, and chemical signs of certain illnesses  
(such as diabetes or cancer) and may even be able to predict seizures in humans (Parker & Graham, [4.78];  
Urbanová et al., [4.111]).  
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Interestingly , other research found that when dogs were presented with five different scents from humans and dogs,  
sensory receptors in the dogs' noses easily picked up all five scents (Berns et al., [4.8]). However, only the human  
scents activated a part of the dog's brain (the caudate nucleus) that has a well-known association with positive  
expectations. The researchers concluded that this brain activation, and the dog's positive association with human  
scents, point to the importance of humans in dogs' lives. A related study has shown that dogs can discriminate  
among many emotional expressions on human faces (Muller et al., [4.71]).  
Subliminal Stimuli  
Have you heard some of the wild rumors about subliminal messages? During the 1970s, it was said that rock songs  
contained demonic messages, which could only be heard when the songs were played backwards! Similarly, in the  
1990s, many suggested that some Disney films contained obscene subliminal messages. For example, in the film  
Aladdin, the lead character supposedly whispers, “all good teenagers take off your clothes,” and The Lion King  
reportedly showed close-up shots of the dust with a secret spelling out of the word “sex.” In addition, at one time  
movie theaters were reportedly flashing messages like “Eat popcorn” and “Drink Cola-Cola” on the screen. Even  
though the messages were so brief that viewers weren't aware of seeing them, it was believed they increased  
consumption of these products (Bargh, [4.4]; Blecha, [4.9]; V okey & Read, [4.115]).  
Can unconscious stimuli really affect our behavior? Experimental studies on subliminal perceptionhave clearly  
shown that we candetect stimuli and information below our level of conscious awareness (Chiau et al., [4.22];  
Rabellino et al., [4.84]; Urriza et al., [4.112]). These studies commonly use an instrument, called a tachistoscope,  
to flash images too quickly for conscious recognition, but slowly enough to be registered by the brain. How does  
this happen? As we've just seen, our “absolute threshold” is the point at which we can detect a stimulus half the  
time. Subliminal stimuliare just stimuli that fall below our 50% absolute threshold, and they can be detected  
without our awareness.  
Furthermore, research on primingfinds that certain unconscious or unnoticed stimuli can reach our brains and  
predispose (prime) us to make it easier or more difficult to recall related information already in storage (Ohtomo,  
[4.75]; Sassenberg et al., [4.95]; Xiao & Y amauchi, [4.118]). If a researcher shows you the words “red” and “fire  
engine,” you'll be slightly faster to recognize the word “apple” because all of these words have been previously  
stored and closely associated in your memory .  
Despite the fact that subliminal per ceptionand primingdo occur, it doesn't mean that such processes lead to  
significant behavioral changes. Subliminal stimuli are basically weak stimuli. In one recent experiment that used  
priming, for example, researchers offered participants implicit primes as well as direct, overt warnings about the  
danger of cyberattacks. Surprisingly , almost 80% of the participants nevertheless were willing to provide personal  
information, such as their e-mail addresses, and over 40% willingly provided 9 digits from their 18-digit bank  
account numbers (Junger et al., [4.51]). Apparently , our tendency to trust one another overrides priming, direct  
warnings, and even our common sense.  
Nevertheless, subliminal stimuli sometimes have an effect on indirect, more subtle reactions, such as our more  
casual attitudes. Researchers in a clever study placed volunteers in different rooms with music playing in the  
background from one of three regions—the United States, China, or India (North et al., [4.74]). While listening to  
different types of music, each participant looked at a menu for 5 minutes with 30 dinner options. The scientists  
then asked them to recall as many dishes from the menu as they could, and then to choose one dish to order as a  
meal. Presumably due to subliminal stimuli from the music, participants better remembered and more often chose  
dishes that reflected the music they had listened to before looking at the menu. For example, those who listened to  
American music (“California Girls,” “Surfin' U.S.A.,” and “Good Vibrations” by the Beach Boys) chose foods like  
hamburgers and hot dogs.  
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Sensory Adaptation  
Imagine that friends have invited you to come visit their beautiful new baby kitten. As they greet you at the door,  
you are overwhelmed by the odor of the kitten's overflowing litter box. Why don't your friends do something about  
that smell? The answer lies in the previously mentioned sensory reduction, as well as sensory adaptation. When a  
constant stimulus is presented for a length of time, sensation often fades or disappears. Receptors in our sensory  
system become less sensitive. They get “tired” and actually fire less frequently .  
Sensory adaptation can be understood from an evolutionary perspective. W e can't afford to waste attention and  
time on unchanging, normally unimportant stimuli. “Turning down the volume” on repetitive information helps the  
brain cope with an overwhelming amount of sensory stimuli and enables us to pay attention to change. Sometimes,  
however, adaptation can be dangerous, as when people stop paying attention to a small gas leak in the kitchen.  
Although some senses, like smell and touch, adapt quickly, we never completely adapt to visual stimuli or to  
extremely intense stimuli, such as the odor of ammonia or the pain of a bad burn. From an evolutionary  
perspective, these limitations on sensory adaptation aid survival by reminding us, for example, to keep a watch out  
for dangerous predators, avoid strong odors and heat, and take care of that burn.  
Pain and Sensory Adaptation  
Our differing reactions to pain offer an intriguing example of sensory adaptation. In certain situations, including  
times of physical exertion, the body releases natural, pain-killing neurotransmitters called endorphins(Chapter 2),  
which inhibit pain perception. This is the so-called “runner's high,” which may help explain why athletes have been  
found to have a higher pain tolerance than nonathletes (T esarz et al., [4.108]). (As a critical thinker, is it possible  
that individuals with a naturally high pain tolerance are just more attracted to athletics? Or might the experience of  
playing sports change your pain tolerance?)  
Interestingly , the pain of athletes, soldiers, firefighters, and others is also greatly diminished when they're distracted  
by factors such as duty , competition, or fear (Figure4.5). Similarly , surgical patients who listen to music—even  
while under anesthesia—have less anxiety, report a 20% reduction in post surgery pain, and need less pain  
medication during recovery (Hole et al., [4.45]). And, as you may recall from Chapter 2, dancing or singing in  
synchrony with others is linked to higher pain thresholds and increased social bonding (T arr et al., [4.107];  
W einstein et al., [4.116]).  
Figure 4.5 Competition—a  
powerful pain  
distractor!Manteo Mitchell  
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broke his left leg in the  
qualifying heats of the 4 ×  
400-meter relay race in the  
2012 Olympics. Recalling  
the moment of the accident,  
Manteo said, “I felt it break  
… it hurt so bad … it felt  
like somebody literally just  
snapped my leg in half”  
(Moore, [4.69]). However ,  
he continued running so  
that the American team  
could get into the finals.  
In addition to endorphin release and distraction, one of the most widely accepted explanations of pain perception is  
the gate-control theory of pain, first proposed by Ronald Melzack and Patrick W all ([4.67]). According to this  
theory , the experience of pain depends partly on whether the neural message gets past a “gatekeeper” in the spinal  
cord. Normally , the gate is kept shut, either by impulses coming down from the brain or by messages being sent  
from large-diameter nerve fibers that conduct most sensory signals, such as touch and pressure. However, when  
body tissue is damaged, impulses from smaller pain fibers open the gate (Price & Prescott, [4.83]; Rhudy, [4.88];  
Zhao & W ood, [4.121]). Can you see how this gate-control theory helps explain why massaging an injury or  
scratching an itch can temporarily relieve discomfort? It's because pressure on large-diameter neurons interferes  
with pain signals. In addition, studies suggest that the pain gate may be chemically controlled. A neurotransmitter  
called substance Popens the pain gate, and endorphins close it (Fan et al., [4.30]; Krug et al., [4.54]; Wu et al.,  
[4.1 17]).  
In sum, endorphins, distraction, listening to music, singing and dancing in synchrony with others, pain gates, and  
substance P may all provide soothing comfort and pain reduction, especially for those who are very anxious  
(Bradshaw et al., [4.14]; Fan et al., [4.30]; Gardstrom & Sorel, [4.37]).  
Phantom Limb Pain (PLP )  
Did you know that when normal sensory input is disrupted, the brain can also generate pain and other sensations  
entirely on its own, as is the case with phantom limb pain (PLP)(Bonnan-White et al., [4.10]; Melzack, [4.66];  
Raffin et al., [4.85])? After an amputation, people commonly report detecting their missing limb as if it were still  
there. And up to 80% of people who have had amputations sometimes “feel” pain (and itching, burning, or tickling  
sensations) in the missing limb, long after the amputation. Numerous theories attempt to explain this type of PLP ,  
but one of the best suggests that there is a mismatch between the sensory messages sent and received in the brain.  
Can you understand how this may be an example of our earlier description of how bottom-up processes(such as  
the sensory messages sent from our limbs to our brains) combine with our top-down pr ocesses(our brain's  
interpretation of these messages)? Messages are no longer being transmitted from the missing limb to the brain  
(bottom up), but areas of the brain responsible for receiving messages are still intact (top down). The brain's  
attempt to interpret the confusing messages may result in pain and other sensations.  
In line with this idea of mismatched signals, when amputees wear prosthetic limbs, or when mirror visual therapy  
is used, phantom pain often disappears. In mirror therapy (Figure4.6), pain relief apparently occurs because the  
brain is somehow tricked into believing there is no longer a missing limb (Deconinck et al., [4.24]; Foell et al.,  
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[4.32]; Thieme et al., [4.109]). Others believe that mirror therapy works because it helps the brain reorganize and  
incorporate this phantom limb into a new nervous system configuration (Guo et al., [4.42]).  
Figure 4.6 Treating phantom limb  
painUsing mirror therapy , an amputee  
patient places his or her intact limb on  
one side of the mirror, and the  
amputated limb on the other . He or she  
then concentrates on looking into the  
mirror on the side that reflects the  
intact limb, creating the visual  
impression of two complete  
undamaged limbs. The patient then  
attempts to move both limbs. Thanks  
to the artificial feedback provided by  
the mirror , the patient sees the  
complete limb, and the reflected image  
of the complete limb, moving. He or  
she then interprets this as the phantom  
limb moving.  
Now that we've studied how we perceive pain, how we might ignore or “play through” it, and how we might  
misperceive it with phantom limb pain, you'll be interested to know that when we get anxious or dwell on our pain,  
we can intensify it (Lin et al., [4.59]; Miller-Matero et al., [4.68]; Ray et al., [4.87]). This is important because  
social and cultural factors, such as well-meaning friends or anxious parents who ask pain sufferers about their pain,  
may unintentionally reinforce and increase it. The following Try This Y ourself offers an assessment and strategies  
for your personal pain management.  
Try This Y ourself How W ell Do Y ou Manage Y our Pain?  
Score yourself on how often you use one or more of these strategies, using the following scale:  
0 = never, 1 = seldom, 2 = occasionally , 3 = often, 4 = almost always, 5 = always.  
________1.   
I do something I enjoy , such as watching TV or listening to music.  
________2.   
I try to be around other people.  
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________3.   
I do something active, like household chores or projects.  
________4.   
I try to feel distant from the pain, almost as if I'm floating above my body .  
________5.   
I try to think about something pleasant.  
________6.   
I replay in my mind pleasant experiences from the past.  
________7.   
I tell myself that I can overcome the pain.  
________8.   
I don't think about the pain.  
These questions are based on effective pain management techniques, such as distraction, ignoring pain, and  
reinterpreting it. Review those items that you checked as “never” or “seldom” and consider adding them to your  
pain management skills.  
Retrieval Practice 4.1 Understanding Sensation  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe how bottom-up processing differs from top-down processing.  
2\.   
Transduction is the process of converting ________.  
a. sensory stimuli into neural impulses that are sent along to the brain  
b. receptors into transmitters  
c. a particular sensory stimulus into a specific perception  
d. receptors into neural impulses  
3\.   
The ________is the minimum stimulation necessary to consciously detect a stimulus.  
a. threshold of excitation  
b. difference threshold  
c. absolute threshold  
d. low point  
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4\.   
Experiments on subliminal perception have ________.  
a. supported its existence, but shown that it has little or no effect on behavior  
b. shown that subliminal perception occurs only among children and some adolescents  
c. shown that subliminal messages affect only people who are highly suggestible  
d. failed to support the phenomenon  
5\.   
The ________theory of pain helps explain why it sometimes helps to rub or massage an injured area.  
a. sensory adaptation  
b. gate-control  
c. just noticeable difference  
d. Lamaze  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 10 (Lifespan Development II), you'll learn about autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This  
neurodevelopmental disorder is characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, as well as a  
need for routine and an avoidance of touch. One of the theories about autism is that the person experiences a  
“sensory overload.” Discuss the process of sensory r eductionand how it might relate to the symptoms of autism.  
.  
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Print this page  
4.2 How W e See and Hear  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key components and processes of vision and audition.  
•Identifythe key characteristics of light and sound waves.  
•Explainthe visual process, the key parts and functions of the human eye, and color vision.  
•Identifyvision's major problems and peculiarities.  
•Describeaudition, the key parts and functions of the human ear, and pitch perception.  
•Summarizethe two major types of hearing problems and what we can do to protect our hearing.  
Many people mistakenly believe that what they see and hear is a copy of the outside world. In fact, vision and hearing are the result of what our  
brains create in response to light and sound waves. What we see and hear is based on wave phenomena, similar to ocean waves. Waves vary in  
wavelength and frequency , as explained in Figure4.7. They also vary in height (technically called amplitude). This wave height/amplitude  
determines the intensity of sights and sounds. Finally , waves vary in range, or complexity , which mixes together waves of various  
wavelength/frequency and height/amplitude (Figure4.8).  
Figure 4.7 W aves of light and soundOcean waves  
have a certain distance between them (the  
wavelength), and they pass by you at intervals. If you  
counted the number of passing waves in a set amount  
of time (for example, 5 waves in 60 seconds), you  
could calculate the fr equency(the number of complete  
wavelengths that pass a point in a given time). Longer  
wavelength means lower frequency and vice versa.  
Figure 4.8 Properties of light and sound  
V ision  
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As you recall from our introductory story, Helen Keller lost her sight at a very young age, yet she was aware of something missing in her life  
(Keller , 1962). While on a long train trip, Helen's aunt improvised a doll for six-year-old Helen out of a few towels. It had no nose, no mouth, no  
ears, and no eyes—nothing to indicate a face. Helen found this disturbing. Most disturbing, though, was the lack of eyes. In fact, it agitated her so  
much that she was not content until she found some beads and her aunt attached them for eyes. Uncomprehending as she was of the myriad  
sensations our eyes bring us, Helen still seemed to know the importance of having eyes.  
For example, our human eyes receive and process information amazingly fast. Did you know that professional baseball players can hit a 90-mileper-hour fastball four-tenths of a second after it leaves the pitcher's hand? How is that possible? T o understand the marvels of vision, we need to  
start with the basics—that light waves are a form of electromagnetic energy and only a small part of the full electromagnetic spectrum(Figure4.9).  
Figure 4.9 The electromagnetic spectrum for vision  
T o fully appreciate how our eyes turn these light waves into the experience we call vision, we need to first examine the various structures in our  
eyes that capture and focus the light waves. Then, we need to understand how these waves are transformed (transduced) into neural messages  
(action potentials) that our brains can process into images we consciously see. (Be sure to carefully study this process in Step-by-Step Diagram  
4.1.)  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 4.1 How Our Eyes See  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be  
sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
V arious structures of your eye work together to capture and focus the light waves from the outside world. Receptor cells in your retina (rods and  
cones) then convert these waves into messages that are sent along the optic nerve to be interpreted by your brain.  
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V ision Problems and Peculiarities  
Thoroughly understanding the processes detailed in Step-by-Step Diagram 4.1 offers clues that help us understand several visual peculiarities. For  
example, small abnormalities in the eye sometimes cause images to be focused in front of the retina, resulting in nearsightedness (myopia).In  
contrast, the image is focused behind the retina in the case of farsightedness(hyperopia). In addition, during middle age, most people's lenses lose  
elasticity and the ability to accommodate for near vision, a condition known as presbyopia. Corrective lenses or laser surgery can often correct all  
three of these visual acuity problems.  
A visual peculiarity occurs where the optic nerve exits the eye. Because there are no receptor cells for visual stimuli in that area, we have a tiny  
hole, or blind spot, in our field of vision. (See Step-by-Step Diagram 4.1 for a demonstration.)  
Another peculiarity exists in the retina's vision receptor cells (the rods and cones). The rodsare highly sensitive in dim light, but are less sensitive to  
detail and color . The reverse is true for the cones, which are highly sensitive to color and detail, and less sensitive in dim light. Do you recognize  
how this explains why you're cautioned to look away from bright headlights when driving or biking at night? Staring into the bright lights will  
activate your cones, which are less effective in dim light, whereas looking away activates the rods in your peripheral vision, which are more  
sensitive at night.  
T wo additional peculiarities happen when we go from a bright to dark setting and vice versa. Have you noticed that when you walk into a dark  
movie theater on a sunny afternoon, you're almost blind for a few seconds? The reason is that in bright light, the pigment inside the rods (refer to  
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Step-by-Step Diagram 4.1) is bleached, making them temporarily nonfunctional. It takes a second or two for the rods to become functional enough  
again for you to see. This process of dark adaptationcontinues for 20 to 30 minutes.  
In contrast, light adaptation, the adjustment that takes place when you go from darkness to a bright setting, takes about 7 to 10 minutes and is the  
work of the cones. Interestingly, a region in the center of the retina, called the fovea, has the greatest density of cones, which are most sensitive in  
brightly lit conditions. They're also responsible for color vision and fine detail.  
Color V ision  
Our ability to perceive color is almost as remarkable and useful as vision itself. Humans may be able to discriminate among seven million different  
hues, and research conducted in many cultures suggests that we all seem to see essentially the same colored world (Maule et al., [4.65]; Ozturk et  
al., [4.77]). Furthermore, studies of infants old enough to focus and move their eyes show that they are able to see color nearly as well as adults and  
have color preferences similar to those of adults (Bornstein et al., [4.11]; Y ang et al., [4.117]).  
Although we know color is produced by different wavelengths of light, the actual way in which we perceive color is a matter of scientific debate.  
Traditionally , there have been two theories of color vision: the trichromatic (three-color) theory and the opponent-process theory . The trichromatic  
theory of color(from the Greek word tri, meaning “three,” and chr oma, meaning “color”) suggests that we have three “color systems,” each of  
which is maximally sensitive to red, green, or blue (Y oung, [4.120]). The proponents of this theory demonstrated that mixing lights of these three  
colors could yield the full spectrum of colors we perceive (Figure4.10).  
Figure 4.10 Primary  
colorsTrichromatic  
theory found that the  
three primary colors (red,  
green, and blue) can be  
combined to form all  
colors. For example, a  
combination of green and  
red creates yellow .  
However, trichromatic theory doesn't fully explain color vision, and other researchers have proposed alternative theories. Perhaps the most  
important of these, the opponent-process theory of color, agrees that we have three color systems, but it says that each system is sensitive to two  
opposing colors—blue and yellow , red and green, black and white—in an “on/off” fashion. In other words, each color receptor responds either to  
blue or yellow , or to red or green, with the black-or-white system responding to differences in brightness levels. This theory makes a lot of sense  
because when different-colored lights are combined, people are unable to see reddish green and bluish yellow . In fact, when red and green lights or  
blue and yellow lights are mixed in equal amounts, we see white. This opponent-process theory also explains color afterimages, a fun type of  
optical illusion in which a reverse image briefly remains after the original image has faded (Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Color Afterimages  
Try staring at the dot in the middle of this color-distorted U.S. flag for 60 seconds. Then stare at a plain sheet of white paper. Y ou should get a  
surprising color afterimage. Y ou'll see red in place of green, blue in place of yellow , and white in place of black: a “genuine” U.S. flag. (If you don't  
see the afterimage, blink once or twice and try again.)  
What happened? As you stared at the green, black, and yellow colors, the neural systems that process those colors became fatigued. Then when you  
looked at the plain white paper , which reflects all wavelengths, a reverse opponent process occurred: Each fatigued receptor responded with its  
opposing red, white, and blue colors! This is a good example of color afterimages—and further support for the opponent-process theory.  
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T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
In what situations do you think color afterimages are more likely to occur?  
2\.   
Other than learning that our eyes can play tricks on our brain, why might understanding illusions like this afterimage be useful?  
T oday we know that both trichromatic and opponent-process theories are correct—they just operate at different levels in visual processing. Color  
vision is processed in a trichromatic fashion in the retina. In contrast, color vision during opponent processing involves the retina, optic nerve, and  
brain.  
Color-Deficient V ision  
Most people perceive three different colors—red, green, and blue—and are called trichr omats. However , a small percentage of the population has a  
genetic deficiency in the red–green system, the blue–yellow system, or both. Those who perceive only two colors are called dichromats. People who  
are sensitive to only the black–white system are called monochromats, and they are totally color blind. If you'd like to test yourself for red–green  
color blindness, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Are Y ou Color Blind?  
People who suffer red–green color deficiency have trouble perceiving the number in this design. Although we commonly use the term color  
blindness, most problems are color confusion rather than color blindness. Furthermore, most people who have some color blindness are not even  
aware of it.  
Hearing  
In this section, we examine audition, the sense of hearing, which we use nearly as much as our sense of vision. In fact, Helen Keller said she,  
“found deafness to be a much greater handicap than blindness. … Blindness cuts people off from things. Deafness cuts people off from people.”  
What is it about hearing that makes it so valuable? Audition has a number of important functions, ranging from alerting us to dangers to helping us  
communicate with others. In this section, we talk first about sound waves, then about the ear's anatomy and function, and finally about problems  
with hearing.  
Like the visual process, which transforms light waves into vision, the auditory system is designed to convert sound waves into hearing. Sound  
waves are produced by air molecules moving in a particular wave pattern. For example, vibrating objects like vocal cords or guitar strings create  
waves of compressed and expanded air resembling ripples on a lake that circle out from a tossed stone. Our ears detect and respond to these waves  
of small air pressure changes, our brains then interpret the neural messages resulting from these waves, and we hear!  
T o fully understand this process, pay close attention to the information in Step-by-Step Diagram4.2.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 4.2 How Our Ears Hear  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be  
sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
The outer earcaptures and funnels sound waves into the eardrum. Next, three tiny bones in the middle earpick up the eardrum's vibrations and  
transmit them to the inner ear. Finally , the snail-shaped cochleain the inner ear transforms (transduces) the sound waves into neural messages  
(action potentials) that our brains process into what we consciously hear .  
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Pitch Perception  
How do we determine that certain sounds are from a child's voice, and not from an adult's? We distinguish between high- and low-pitched sounds  
by the fr equencyof the sound waves. The higher the frequency , the higher the pitch. There are three main explanations for how we perceive pitch:  
•According to the place theory for hearing, we hear different pitches because different sound waves stimulate different sections (or places) on  
our cochlea's basilar membrane (see again Step-by-Step Diagram 4.2). Our brains figure out the pitch of a sound by detecting the position of the  
hair cells that sent the neural message. High frequencies produce large vibrations near the start of the basilar membrane—next to the oval  
window . However , this theory does not predict well for low frequencies, which tend to excite the entire basilar membrane.  
•The frequency theory for hearingdiffers from place theory because it states that we hear pitch by the fr equencyof the sound waves traveling up  
the auditory nerve. High-frequency sounds trigger the auditory nerve to fire more often than do low-frequency sounds. The problem with this  
theory is that an individual neuron cannot fire faster than 1,000 times per second, which means that we could not hear many of the notes of a  
soprano singer .  
•The volley principle for hearingsolves the problem of frequency theory , which can't account for the highest-pitched sounds. It states that  
clusters of neurons take turns firing in a sequence of rhythmic volleys. Pitch perception depends upon the frequency of volleys, rather than the  
frequency carried by individual neurons.  
Now that we've explored the mechanics of pitch and pitch perception, would you like a real-world example that you can apply to your everyday  
life? A recent experiment revealed that research participants who lowered the pitch of their voices were seen as being more influential, powerful,  
and intimidating (Cheng et al., [4.21]). This finding also held true in a second experiment in which the people listened to audio recordings of  
various voices. Can you see why the famous deep-voiced actor James Earl Jones was chosen as the voice of Darth V ader in the Star W ars films?  
Given that women generally tend to have higher-pitched voices, can you also see how this research might help explain why women often find it  
harder to gain leadership positions?  
Interestingly , as we age, we tend to lose our ability to hear high-pitched sounds but are still able to hear low-pitched sounds. Given that young  
students can hear a cell phone ringtone that sounds at 17 kilohertz—too high for most adult ears to detect—they can take advantage of this agerelated hearing difference and call or text one another during class (Figure4.11). Ironically , the cell phone's ringtone that most adults can't hear is  
an offshoot of another device, called the Mosquito, which was originally designed to help shopkeepers annoy and drive away loitering teens!  
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Figure 4.11 Exploiting the  
teacher's age-related hearing  
loss  
Softness versus Loudness  
How we detect a sound as being soft or loud depends on its amplitude (or wave height). Waves with high peaks and low valleys produce loud  
sounds; waves with relatively low peaks and shallow valleys produce soft sounds. The relative loudness or softness of sounds is measured on a scale  
of decibels(dBs) (Figure4.12).  
Figure 4.12 Beware of loud soundsThe higher a sound's  
decibel (dB) reading, the more damaging it is to the ear.  
Hearing Problems  
What are the types, causes, and treatments of hearing loss? Conduction hearing loss, also called conduction deafness, results from problems with the  
mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. Hearing aids that amplify the incoming sound waves, and some forms of surgery , can  
help with this type of hearing loss.  
In contrast, sensorineural hearing loss, also known as nerve deafness, results from damage to the cochlea's receptor (hair) cells or to the auditory  
nerve. Disease and biological changes associated with aging can result in sensorineural hearing loss. But it's most common (and preventable) cause  
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is continuous exposure to loud noise, which can damage hair cells and lead to permanent hearing loss. Even brief exposure to really loud sounds,  
like a stereo or headphones at full blast, a jackhammer, or a jet airplane engine, can cause permanent nerve deafness (see again Figure4.12). In fact,  
a high volume on earphones can reach the same noise level as a jet engine! All forms of high-volume noise can damage the coating on nerve cells,  
making it harder for the nerve cells to send information from the ears to the brain (Eggermont, [4.27]; Fagelson & Baguley, [4.29]; Jiang et al.,  
[4.48]).  
Keep in mind that damage to the auditory nerve or receptor cells is generally considered irreversible. Currently the best-known treatment is a small  
electronic device called a cochlear implant. If the auditory nerve is intact, the implant bypasses hair cells to stimulate the nerve. Unfortunately ,  
cochlear implants produce only a crude approximation of hearing, but the technology is improving.  
Given the limited benefits of medicine or technology to help improve hearing following damage, it's even more important to protect our sense of  
hearing. W e can do this by avoiding exceptionally loud noises and wearing hearing protectors, such as earmuffs or earplugs, when we cannot avoid  
such stimuli (see photo). In fact, a recent study found that 42% of people not wearing earplugs experienced some hearing loss after being exposed to  
a loud sound, compared to only 8% who wore earplugs (Ramakers et al., [4.86]). It's also critical to pay attention to bodily warnings of possible  
hearing loss, including a change in our normal hearing threshold and tinnitus, a whistling or ringing sensation in the ears. These relatively small  
changes can have lifelong benefits.  
Retrieval Practice 4.2 How W e See and Hear  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix  
B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Identify the parts of the eye, placing the appropriate label on the figure to the right.  
cornealens cone blind spot  
iris retina fovea optic nerve  
pupil rod   
2\.   
A visual acuity problem that occurs when the cornea and lens focus an image in front of the retina is called ________.  
a. farsightedness  
b. hyperopia  
c. myopia  
d. presbyopia  
3\.   
The ________theory of color vision states that there are three systems of color opposites (blue-yellow , red-green, and black-white).  
a. trichromatic  
b. opponent-process  
c. tri-receptor  
d. lock-and-key  
4\.   
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Identify the parts of the ear , placing the appropriate label on the figure to the right.  
tympanic membrane stirrup oval window  
anvil hammer cochlea  
5\.   
Chronic exposure to loud noise can cause permanent ________.  
a. auditory illusions  
b. auditory hallucinations  
c. nerve deafness  
d. conduction deafness  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you discovered that some people experience color-deficient vision. However , you may not realize that this condition usually affects  
men more than women and is genetic. Based on the discussion in Chapter 9 (Lifespan Development 1) about chromosomes and inherited  
characteristics, how might you explain the higher number of men versus women with color-deficient vision?  
.  
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4.3 Our Other Important Senses  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval Practicewhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each learning objective in your own words.  
Review the processes involved in smell, taste, and the body senses.  
•Explainthe key factors in olfaction and gustation, and how the two senses interact.  
•Describehow the body senses (skin, vestibular, and kinesthesis) work.  
I know by smell the kind of house we enter . I have r ecognized an old-fashioned country house because it has several layers of odors, left by a  
succession of families, of plants, perfumes, and draperies. Through the sense of touch I know the faces of friends, the illimitable variety of  
straight and curved lines, all surfaces, the exuberance of the soil, the delicate shapes of flowers, the noble forms of trees, and the range of  
mighty winds. … Footsteps, I discover , vary tactually accor ding to the age, the sex, and the manners of the walker .  
(—Keller ([4.53], pp. 43–44, 46, 68–69)  
These are the words of Helen Keller, the blind and deaf educator , author , and activist we introduced at the start of this chapter . Imagine being  
able to recognize a house by the smell of its previous occupants or your friends by a touch of their face. Vision and audition may be the most  
prominent of our senses, but the others—smell, taste, and the body senses—also help us navigate and gather vital information about our  
environment.  
Smell and T aste  
Smell and taste are sometimes called the chemical sensesbecause they both rely on chemo-receptors that are sensitive to certain chemical  
molecules. Have you wondered why we have trouble separating the two sensations? Smell and taste receptors are located near each other and  
closely interact (Figure4.13 and the following Try This Y ourself).  
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Figure 4.13 Why we enjoy eating pizza: olfaction plus gustationWhen we eat pizza, the crust, cheese, sauce, and other food  
molecules activate taste receptor cells on our tongue, while the pizza's odors activate smell receptor cells in our nose. This combined  
sensory information is then sent on to our brain where it is processed in various association regions of the cortex. T aste and smell  
also combine with sensory cells that respond to touch and temperature, which explains why cold, hard pizza “tastes” and “smells”  
different than hot, soft pizza.  
Try This Y ourself The Art of Wine T asting  
Why do professional wine judges sniff the wine instead of just tasting it?  
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Our sense of smell, olfaction, which results from stimulation of receptor cells in the nose, is remarkably useful and sensitive. W e possess more  
than 1,000 types of olfactory receptors, which allow us to detect more than 10,000 distinct smells. The nose is more sensitive to smoke than  
any electronic detector . And people who are blind (like Helen Keller) can, with practice, learn to recognize others by their unique odors.  
Chemicals called pheromones, which are released by animals and unconsciously detected through the sense of smell, trigger certain  
responses, such as aggression or sexual mating (Beny & Kimchi, [4.6]; Plush et al., [4.81]). Some research indicates that pheromones also  
affect human sexual response (Baum & Cherry , [4.5]; Jouhanneau et al., [4.50]; Ottaviano et al., [4.76]). However , other research suggests  
that human sexuality is far more complex than that of other animals (Chapters 11, 12, and 16).  
T oday , the sense of taste, gustation, which results from stimulation of receptor cells in the tongue's taste buds, may be the least critical of our  
senses. In the past, however , it probably contributed significantly to our survival. For example, humans and other animals have a preference  
for sweet foods, which are generally nonpoisonous and are good sources of energy . The major function of taste, aided by smell, is to help us  
avoid eating or drinking harmful substances. Because many plants that taste bitter contain toxic chemicals, an animal is more likely to survive  
if it avoids bitter-tasting plants (French et al., [4.34]; Sagong et al., [4.94]; Schwartz & Krantz, [4.98]).  
Did you know that our taste and smell receptors normally die and are replaced every few days? This probably reflects the fact that these  
receptors are directly exposed to the environment, whereas vision receptors are protected by the eyeball and hearing receptors are protected by  
the eardrum. However , as we grow older , the number of taste cells diminishes, which helps explain why adults enjoy spicier foods than do  
infants. Scientists are particularly excited about the regenerative capabilities of the taste and olfactory cells because they hope to learn how to  
transfer this regeneration to other types of cells that are currently unable to self-replace when damaged.  
Myth Busters The Truth About T aste  
Scientists once believed that we detected only four distinct tastes: sweet, sour , salty ,and bitter. However , we now know that we have a fifth  
taste sense, umami, a word that means “delicious” or “savory” and refers to sensitivity to an amino acid called glutamate(Bredie et al., [4.15];  
Lease et al., [4.56]). Glutamate is found in meats, meat broths, and monosodium glutamate (MSG).  
It was also previously believed that there were specific areas on our tongues dedicated to detecting bitter, sweet, salty , and other tastes. T oday  
we know that taste receptors, like smell receptors, respond differentially to the varying shapes of food and liquid molecules. The major taste  
receptors—taste buds—are distributed all over our tongues within little bumps called papillae. But a small number of taste receptors are also  
found in the palate and the back of our mouths. Thus, even people without a tongue experience some taste sensations.  
Learning and Culture  
Many food and taste preferences are learned from an early age and from personal experiences (Fildes et al., [4.31]; Nicklaus, [4.72]; Tan et  
al., [4.105]). For example, many Japanese children eat raw fish, and some Chinese children eat chicken feet as part of their normal diet.  
Although most U.S. children might consider these foods “yucky,” they tend to love cheese, which children in many other cultures find  
repulsive.  
In addition, our expectations and experiences can affect our taste preferences. For example, adults who are told a bottle of wine costs $90  
(rather than its real price of $10) report that it tastes better than a supposedly cheaper brand. Ironically, these false expectations actually  
trigger areas of the brain that respond to pleasant experiences (Plassmann et al., [4.80]). This means that in a neurochemical sense, the wine  
we believe is better does, in fact, taste better! Regarding our experiences, other research has found that multiple-drug users and recreational  
cannabis users have a higher preference for salty and sour tastes, whereas daily tobacco and cannabis users have a higher preference for sweet  
and spicy tastes (Dovey et al., [4.25]).  
Keep in mind that smell and taste are not the only two senses that overlap. We obviously enjoy a meal in a fine restaurant with beautiful music  
playing in the background far more than the same meal eaten alone while watching television. But did you know that music alone can even  
affect the taste of beer? See the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Can Music Improve the T aste of Beer?  
Research shows that what we see and hear can significantly affect our perception and enjoyment of different flavors (e.g., Seo & Hummel,  
[4.100]; Spence, [4.19]). Surprisingly , even the curvature of a product's design can influence its expected taste. For example, rounder designs  
lead to greater expectations of sweetness, whereas people more often expect more sour tastes with angular designs (Lunardo & Livat, [4.63]).  
T o investigate how taste and background music may interact, the Brussels Beer Project collaborated with a UK band, The Editors, to produce  
a porter-style beer with a custom-designed label that broadly corresponded to the band's latest album, “In Dreams” (Carvalho et al., [4.19]).  
The researchers then invited 231 drinkers to test the beer in three different conditions:  
•Group 1 drank the beer from unlabeled bottles without listening to any specific song.  
•Group 2 drank the beer from bottles with the special labels, again without listening to a song.  
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•Group 3 drank the beer from bottles with the special labels while listening to “Oceans of Light,” one of the songs on the band's latest  
album.  
Before being assigned to groups, participants rated how tasty they expected the beer to be. After tasting, they rated how much they liked the  
beer's taste. Can you explain why participants in Group 3 reported both greater enjoyment and better taste than those in Groups 1 and 2?  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this research (Carvalho et al., [4.19]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/ interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental groups(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to  
groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and  
public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a  
better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
The Body Senses  
As you recall from our introductory story, Helen Keller's young teacher , Anne Sullivan, was able to break through Helen's barrier of isolation  
by taking advantage of her sense of touch. One day , Anne took Helen to the pump house and, as Anne recalled:  
I made Helen hold her mug under the spout while I pumped. As the cold water gushed forth, filling the mug, I spelled “w-a-t-e-r” in Helen's  
fr ee hand. The word coming so close upon the sensation of cold water rushing over her hand seemed to startle her . She dr opped the mug and  
stood as one transfixed. A new light came into her face(Keller , [4.53], p. 23).  
That one moment, brought on by the sensation of cold water on her hand, was the impetus for a lifetime of learning about, understanding, and  
appreciating the world through her remaining senses. In using her sense of touch, Helen was using one of the so-called body senses. In  
addition to smell and taste, we have three major body senses that help us navigate our world—skin senses, vestibular sense, and kinesthetic  
sense (Figure4.14).  
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Figure 4.14 Our body senses  
Skin Senses  
Our skin is uniquely designed for the detection of touch (or pressure), temperature, and pain (Figure4.14a). The concentration and depth of  
the receptors for each of these stimuli vary . For example, touch receptors are most concentrated on the face and fingers and least concentrated  
in the back and legs. Getting a paper cut can feel so painful because we have many receptors on our fingertips. Some receptors respond to  
more than one type of stimulation. For example, itching, tickling, and vibrating sensations seem to be produced by light stimulation of both  
pressure and pain receptors.  
The benefits of touch are so significant for human growth and development that the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all  
mothers and babies have skin-to-skin contact in the first hours after birth. This type of contact, which is called kangar oo care, is especially  
beneficial for preterm and low-birth-weight infants. Babies who receive this care experience greater weight gain, fewer infections, and  
improved cognitive and motor development. How does kangaroo care lead to these improvements in infant health? See Figure4.15.  
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Figure 4.15 Infant benefits from  
kangaroo careThis type of skinto-skin touch helps babies in  
several ways, including  
providing warmth, reducing pain  
(lower levels of arousal and  
stress increases pain tolerance  
and immune functioning), and  
improving sleep quality . Other  
research, including a metaanalysis (which combines results  
from multiple studies), also  
found that babies who receive  
kangaroo care have a 36% lower  
likelihood of death—as well as a  
lower risk of blood infection and  
similar positive long-term effects  
beyond infancy (Boundy et al.,  
[4.12]; Burke-Aaronson, [4.17];  
Nobre et al., 2016). As we'll  
discuss throughout this text, skinto-skin contact, including holding  
hands and hugging, provides  
numerous physical and mental  
benefits for people of all ages.  
V estibular Sense  
Our sense of balance, the vestibular sense, informs our brains of how our body (particularly our head) is oriented with respect to gravity and  
three-dimensional space (Figure4.14b). When our head tilts, liquid in the semicir cular canals, located in our inner ear , moves and bends hair  
cell receptors. In addition, at the end of the semicircular canals are vestibular sacs, which contain hair cells sensitive to our bodily movement  
relative to gravity (as shown in Figure4.14b). Information from the semicircular canals and the vestibular sacs is converted to neural  
impulses that are then carried to our brains.  
Kinesthesis  
The sense that provides the brain with information about the location, orientation, and movement of individual body parts is called kinesthesis  
(Figure4.14c). Kinesthetic receptors are found throughout the muscles, joints, and tendons of our body . They tell our brains which muscles  
are being contracted or relaxed, how our body weight is distributed, where our arms and legs are in relation to the rest of our body, and so on.  
Retrieval Practice 4.3 Our Other Important Senses  
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Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
________results from stimulation of receptor cells in the nose.  
a. Audition  
b. Gustation  
c. Olfaction  
d. None of these options  
2\.   
Describe how olfaction and gustation interact.  
3\.   
Most of our taste receptors are found on the ________.  
a. olfactory bulb  
b. gustatory cells  
c. frenulum  
d. taste buds  
4\.   
The skin senses include ________.  
a. pressure  
b. pain  
c. warmth and cold  
d. all of these options  
5\.   
The ________sense is located in the inner ear and is responsible for our sense of balance.  
a. auditory  
b. vestibular  
c. kinesthetic  
d. olfactory  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), you explored the functions of various structures in the brain. Imagine that you are  
giving a presentation in your U.S. history class. Name the areas involved in the following behaviors: (a) smelling the perfume of one of your  
classmates, (b) tasting the cough drop you just swallowed to prevent your coughs, (c) noticing that the tag of your new shirt is scratching the  
back of your neck.  
.  
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4.4 Understanding Perception  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the three processes involved in perception.  
•Explainillusions and why they're important.  
•Discussthe process of selection and its three major factors.  
•Describethe three ways we organize sensory data.  
•Reviewthe main factors in perceptual interpretation.  
•Discussthe research findings on ESP and why so many people believe in it.  
There ar e things known and unknown, and in between are the doors of perception.  
—Aldous Huxley (English Satiristt, Author of Brave New W orld)  
W e are ready to move from sensationand the major senses to perception, the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting incoming sensations  
into useful mental representations of the world.  
Normally , our perceptions agree with our sensations. When they do not, the result is called an illusion, a false or misleading impression produced by  
errors in the perceptual process or by actual physical distortions, as in the so-called moon illusion, in which the moon looks larger at the horizon than  
when it's overhead. Illusions are important to psychologists because they provide a unique tool for studying the normal process of perception  
(Concept Organizer4.1).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 4.1 Understanding Perceptual Illusions  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to  
study it CAREFULL Y!  
Study Tip  
Note that illusions are NOT the same as hallucinations or delusions. Hallucinations are false, imaginary sensory perceptions that occur without  
external, objective stimuli, such as hearing voices during a psychotic episode or seeing particular images after using some type of hallucinogenic  
drug, such as LSD or hallucinogenic mushrooms. Delusions r efer to false, imaginary beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur , that may accompany  
psychotic episodes or drug experiences.  
As you may have noticed, this text highlights numerous popular mythsabout psychology because it's important to understand and correct our  
misperceptions. For similar reasons, you need to know how illusions mislead our normal information processing and recognize that “seeing is  
believing, but seeing isn't always believing correctly” (Lilienfeld et al., [4.58], p. 7).  
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T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Can you see how illusions like these might create real-world dangers for our everyday lives?  
2\.   
When you watch films of moving cars, the wheels appear to go backward. Can you explain this common visual illusion?  
Selection  
In almost every situation, we confront more sensory information than we can reasonably pay attention to. Three major factors help us focus on some  
stimuli and ignore others: selective attention, featur e detectors, and habituation.  
Certain basic mechanisms for perceptual selection are built into the brain. For example, we're able to focus our conscious awareness on a specific  
stimulus while filtering out other stimuli thanks to the process of selective attention(Figure4.16). This type of focused attention and concentration  
allows us to select only information that is essential to us and discard the rest (Chen et al., [4.20]; Howell et al., [4.46]; Rosner et al., [4.90]).  
Figure 4.16 Selective attentionHave you noticed that  
when you're at a noisy party , you can still select and attend  
to the voices of people you find interesting, or that you can  
suddenly pick up on another group's conversation if  
someone in that group mentions your name? These are  
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prime examples of selective attention, also called the  
“cocktail party phenomenon.”  
In addition to selective attention, the brains of humans and other animals contain specialized cells, called feature detectors, which respond only to  
specific characteristics of visual stimuli, such as shape, angle, or movement (Figure4.17). For example, frogs are known to have specific “bug  
detector” cells that respond to small, dark, moving objects. Humans also have specific cells for detecting general motion in our peripheral vision, as  
well as feature detectors in the temporal and occipital lobes, some of which respond maximally to faces (see again Figure4.17). Problems in these  
areas can produce a condition called prosopagnosia(prosoponmeans “face,” and agnosiameans “failure to know”). People with prosopagnosia can  
recognize that they are looking at a face. But, surprisingly , they cannot say whose face is reflected in a mirror, even if it is their own or that of a friend  
or relative (Lohse et al., [4.62]; T anzer et al., [4.106]; V an Belle et al., [4.113]).  
Figure 4.17 Feature detectors in our brainsRecall from Chapter 2 that during fMRI  
scans, specific areas of the brain are activated (they “light up”). In this case,  
researchers identified areas that are activated when people look at specific objects,  
such as faces, houses, chairs, and even combinations like houses and chairs. Given  
that our brains are not designed to waste time or processing power, can you see why  
humans have developed specific cells designed to recognize these particular shapes?  
Other examples of the brain's ability to filter experience occurs with habituation, the brain's learned tendency to ignore or stop responding to  
unchanging information. Apparently the brain is “prewired” to pay more attention to changes in the environment than to stimuli that remain constant.  
As you'll discover in Chapter 9, developmental psychologists often use measurements of habituation to tell when a stimulus can be detected and  
discriminated by infants who are too young to speak. When presented with a new stimulus, infants initially pay attention, but with repetition they  
learn that the stimulus is unchanging, and their responses weaken. Habituation can also lead to serious relationship problems—see the following Try  
This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Romance versus Habituation  
Have you ever wondered why attention and compliments from a complete stranger seem more exciting and valuable to you than similar actions and  
words from your long-term romantic partner? Does this make you wonder if you're with the right person? Think again. Remember that we all  
habituate to unchanging stimuli. If we move on to other relationships, they too will soon fall victim to habituation.  
What can we do to keep romance alive? If we're the person being complimented, we can be grateful that we've learned about habituation, and then  
remind ourselves to not be overly influenced by a stranger's attention. As the long-term romantic partner hoping to offset the dangers of habituation,  
we can take a note from advertisers by using more intensity , novelty, and contrastin our compliments and interactions with our loved ones.  
Habituation versus Sensory Adaptation  
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Before going on, let's look more closely at the distinction between habituation and sensory adaptation, which we discussed earlier. Recall that sensory  
adaptation refers to the sensory r eceptors' innatetendency to fatigue and stop responding to unchanging stimuli. In contrast, habituation is our brain's  
learnedtendency to stop responding to unchanging stimuli. The first is innate and occurs at the sensory receptor level. The second is learned and  
occurs within the brain. Here's a simple example: If someone pulled the fire alarm at your college, you'd initially jump up and try to evacuate.  
However, if your instructor told you that this was a false alarm, which couldn't be immediately turned off, the loud noise of the alarm would slowly  
start to fade because your sensory receptors would automatically adapt to the unchanging noise. In contrast, if students keep pulling the fire alarm as a  
dangerous prank, you and others will soon learn to ignore the sound and stop trying to evacuate.  
In sum, sensory adaptation happens to us and we respond automatically . Habituation is voluntary—we actively use our brains to deliberately redirect  
our attention away from the stimulus. Do you understand how both sensory adaptation and habituation may have serious consequences? If you ignore  
the smell of leaking gas in your apartment, you'll eventually adapt—and may die from the fumes! Similarly , repeated “prank” fire alarms, lock-down  
drills at schools, and national “red alert” terrorist warnings may lead all of us to become complacent (and less careful). Hopefully, your increased  
understanding of sensory adaptation and habituation will better prepare you for a proper response when a true need arises.  
Given that sensory adaptation and habituation occur with unchanging stimuli, are you wondering why ads are so often repeated? Advertisers know  
that repetition builds brand familiarity , which generally increases sales. However , they're also well aware of the wear-in/wear-out theory, which  
suggests that repetition has an initial positive effect but that too much repetition generally diminishes an ad's effectiveness (Berlyne, [4.7]; Kapexhiu,  
[4.52]). Y ou can be sure that advertisers take steps to avoid problems resulting from exposure. The good news is that your awareness of the  
psychological factors behind persuasive techniques may help you become a more informed consumer.  
Organization  
In the previous section, we discussed how we select certain stimuli in our environment to pay attention to while disregarding other stimuli. The next  
step in perception is to organize this selected information into useful mental representations of the world around us. Raw sensory data are like the  
parts of a watch—the parts must be assembled in a meaningful way before they are useful. W e organize visual sensory data in terms of form, depth,  
and constancy.  
Form Perception  
Look at the two figures in Figure4.18a. What do you see? Can you draw similar objects on a piece of paper? Most people without artistic training  
cannot reconstruct these drawings. Why? It's because pictures and drawings are naturally two-dimensional. However, these drawings were created  
using standard pictorial rules to create the illusion of three dimensions, while also breaking some of these same rules. For example, looking at each  
drawing in Figure a, you assume they're representing a normal structure and items. But as you try to sort out and organize the different lines into a  
stable, well-organized whole, you realize the lines and planes don't add up—they're illogical or impossible. Why do psychologists study these aptly  
named “impossible figures”? It's because they offer intriguing insights into our visual processing and form perception.  
Figure 4.18 Understanding form perception  
Now look at Figure4.18b. Even before they're two months of age, infants have learned how to piece together the components of the human face and  
easily recognize familiar faces, just as this infant recognizes her grandfather's face. Like the illusions studied earlier, impossible figures and infant  
perception help us understand perceptual principles—in this case, the principle of form per ception.  
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Gestalt psychologistswere among the first to study form perception and how the brain organizes sensory impressions into a gestalt—a German word  
meaning “form” or “whole.” They emphasized the importance of organization and patterning in enabling us to perceive the whole stimulus rather  
than perceive its discrete parts as separate entities. The Gestaltists proposed several laws of organization that specify how people perceive form  
(Figure4.19).  
Figure 4.19 Understanding Gestalt principles of organizationGestalt principles are based on  
the notion that we all share a natural tendency to force patterns onto whatever we see.  
Although the examples of the Gestalt principles in this figure are all visual, each principle  
applies to other modes of perception as well. For example, the Gestalt principle of contiguity  
cannot be shown because it involves nearness in time, not visual nearness. Similarly, the  
aural (hearing) effects of figure and ground aren't shown in this figure, but you've  
undoubtedly experienced them in a movie theater. Despite nearby conversations in the  
audience, you can still listen to the voices on the film because you make them your focus  
(the figure) versus the ground.  
The most fundamental Gestalt principle of organization is our tendency to distinguish between the figur e(our main focus of attention) and the ground  
(the background or surroundings). Y our sense of figure and ground is at work in what you are doing right now—reading. Y our brain is receiving  
sensations of black lines and white paper, but your brain is organizing these sensations into black letters and words on a white background. Y ou  
perceive the letters as the figure and the white as the ground. If you make a great effort, you might be able to force yourself to see the page reversed,  
as though a black background were showing through letter-shaped holes in a white foreground.  
There are times, however, when it is very hard to distinguish the figure from the ground, as you can see in Figure4.20. This type of figure is known  
as a r eversible figure. Y our brain alternates between seeing the light areas as the figure and seeing them as the ground. Are you wondering how the  
Gestalt laws might vary among different cultures? See the following Gender and Cultural Diversity.  
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Figure 4.20 Understanding  
reversible figuresThis socalled r eversible figure  
demonstrates alternating  
figure–ground relations. It can  
be seen as a woman looking in  
a mirror or as a skull,  
depending on what you see as  
figure or ground.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Are the Gestalt Laws Universally True?  
Gestalt psychologists conducted most of their work with formally educated people from urban European cultures. A. R. Luria ([4.64]) was one of the  
first to question whether their laws held true for all participants, regardless of education and cultural setting. Luria recruited a wide range of  
participants living in what was then the U.S.S.R. He included Ichkeri women from remote villages (with no formal education), collective farm  
activists (who were semiliterate), and female students in a teachers' school (with years of formal education).  
Luria found that when presented with the stimuli shown in Figure4.21, the formally trained female students were the only ones who identified the  
first three shapes by their categorical name of “circle.” Whether circles were made of solid lines, incomplete lines, or solid colors, they called them all  
circles. However, participants with no formal education named the shapes according to the objects they resembled. They called a circle a watch, a  
plate, or a moon, and referred to a square as a mirror, a house, or an apricot-drying board. When asked if items 12 and 13 from Figure4.21 were  
alike, one woman answered, “No, they're not alike. This one's not like a watch, but that one's a watch because there are dots.”  
Figure 4.21 Luria's stimuliWhen you see these shapes, you readily identify them as circles,  
triangles, and other geometric forms. According to cross-cultural research, this is due to your  
formal educational training. If you were from a culture without formal education, you might  
identify them instead as familiar objects in your environment—”the circle is like the moon.”  
One interpretation of Luria's findings is that the Gestalt laws of perceptual organization are valid only for people who have been schooled in  
geometric concepts. But an alternative explanation has also been suggested. Luria's study, as well as most research on visual perception and optical  
illusions, relied on two-dimensional presentations—either on a piece of paper or projected on a screen. It may be that experience with pictures and  
photographs (not formal education in geometric concepts) is necessary for learning to interpret two-dimensional figures as portraying threedimensional forms. W esterners who have had years of practice learning to interpret two-dimensional drawings of three-dimensional objects may not  
remember how much practice it took to learn the cultural conventions for judging the size and shape of objects drawn on paper (Berry et al., 2011;  
Keith, 2010).  
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Depth Perception  
In our three-dimensional world, the ability to perceive the depth and distance of objects—as well as their height and width—is essential (see the  
cartoon). Depth perceptionis learned primarily through experience. However , research using an apparatus called the visual cliff(Figure4.22)  
suggests that very young infants can perceive depth and will actively avoid it.  
Figure 4.22 V isual cliffGiven the desire to  
investigate depth perception, while also  
protecting infants and other experimental  
participants from actual falls, psychologists  
E. J. Gibson and R. D. W alk ([4.38])  
created a clever miniature cliff with a  
simulated drop-off. Infants were placed on  
the glass surface that covered the entire  
table and then encouraged (usually by their  
mothers) to crawl over either the shallow or  
the deep side. The research showed that  
most crawling infants hesitate or refuse to  
move to the “deep end” of the visual cliff,  
indicating that they perceive the difference  
in depth.  
Some have suggested that this visual cliff research proves that depth perception, and avoidance of heights, is inborn. The modern consensus is that  
infants are, indeed, able to perceive depth. But the idea that infants' fear of heights causes their avoidance is not supported by research (Adolph et al.,  
[4.1]). Instead, researchers found that infants display a flexible and adaptive response at the edge of a drop-off. They pat the surface, attempt to reach  
through the glass, and even rock back and forth at the edge. They decide whether or not to cross or avoid a drop-off based on previous locomotor  
experiences, along with gained knowledge of their own muscle strength, balance, and other criteria.  
The notion that fear of heights is NOT innate is further supported by other research showing that infants and young children willingly approach  
photos and videos of snakes and spiders, and even live snakes and spiders, rather than withdrawing from them (LoBue, [4.61]). Although infants do  
show a heightened sensitivity to snakes, spiders, and heights—which may facilitate fear learning later in development—they do not innately fear  
them. In short, infants perceive depth, but their fear of heights apparently develops over time, like walking or language acquisition.  
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How , exactly , do we perceive depth? Although we do get some sense of distance based on hearing and even smell, most depth perception comes from  
several visual cues, which are summarized in Figure4.23. The first mechanism we use is the interaction of both of our eyes, which produces  
binocular cues(Figure4.24). However, the binocular cues of retinal disparityand convergenceare inadequate in judging distances longer than the  
length of a football field. Luckily , we have several monocular cues, which need only one eye to work. Imagine yourself as an artist, and see whether  
you can identify each of the following monocular cues in this beautiful photo of the T aj Mahal, a famous mausoleum in India (Figure4.25):  
•Linear perspective Parallel lines converge, or angle toward one another, as they recede into the distance.  
•Interposition Objects that obscure or overlap other objects are perceived as closer.  
•Relative size Close objects cast a larger retinal image than distant objects.  
•T exture gradient Nearby objects have a coarser and more distinct texture than distant ones.  
•Aerial perspective Distant objects appear hazy and blurred compared to close objects because of intervening atmospheric dust or haze.  
•Light and shadow Brighter objects are perceived as being closer than darker objects.  
•Relative height Objects positioned higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away.  
Figure 4.23 VIsual cues for depth perception  
Figure 4.24 Binocular depth cuesHow do we perceive a three-dimensional world with a two-dimensional receptor system? One mechanism is  
the interaction of both eyes to produce binocular cues.  
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Figure 4.25 Monocular depth cues and the Taj Mahal  
T wo additional monocular cues for depth perception, accommodationof the lens of the eye and motion parallax, cannot be used by artists and are not  
shown in Figure4.25. In accommodation, muscles that adjust the shape of the lens as it focuses on an object send neural messages to the brain, which  
interprets the signal to perceive distance. For near objects, the lens bulges; for far objects, it flattens. Motion parallax(also known as r elative motion)  
refers to the fact that close objects appear to whiz by , whereas farther objects seem to move more slowly or remain stationary .  
Constancies Perception  
T o organize our sensations into meaningful patterns, we develop perceptual constancies, the learned tendency to perceive the environment as stable,  
despite changes in an object's size, color, brightness, and shape. W ithout perceptual constancy , things would seem to grow as we get closer to them,  
change shape as our viewing angle changes, and change color as light levels change (Albright, [4.2]; Schmidt & Fleming, [4.97]; Stiles et al.,  
[4.102]).  
•Size constancy Regardless of an object's distance from us (or the size of the image it casts on our retina), size constancyallows us to interpret the  
object as always being the same size. For example, the image of the couple in the foreground of Figure4.26 is much larger on our retina than the  
trees behind them. However , thanks to size constancy , we perceive them to be of normal size. W ithout this constancy , we would perceive people  
as “shrinking” when they move away from us and “growing” when they move toward us. Although researchers have found evidence of size  
constancy in newborns, it also develops from learning and the environment. Case studies of people who have been blind since birth, and then have  
their sight restored, find that they initially have little or no size constancy (Sacks, [4.93]).  
Figure 4.26 Size constancyNote how the  
couple in the foreground look larger than  
the trees and mountains in the background.  
Thanks to size constancy, we automatically  
adjust our perception and see them not as  
giants but as simply far closer to the  
photographer than the trees and mountains.  
•Color and brightness constancies Our perception of color and brightness remain the same even when the light conditions change. Look at the two  
children's red hair in Figure4.27. W e perceive the color and brightness as constant despite the fact that the wavelength of light reaching our retina  
may vary as the light changes.  
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Figure 4.27 Color and brightness  
constanciesThanks to colorand brightness  
constancies, we don't assume the children's red hair  
is dark brown or black in the shaded areas.  
•Shape constancy One additional perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive an object's shape as staying constant even when the angle of  
our view changes (Figure4.28).  
Figure 4.28 Shape constancy  
Interpretation  
In the previous two sections, we discussed how we select and organize all the available and incoming sensory information. Now we'll explore how  
our brains work to interpret this large data base. This final stage of perception—interpr etation—is influenced by several factors, including sensory  
adaptation, perceptual set, and frame of reference.  
Imagine that your visual field has been suddenly inverted and reversed. Things you normally expect to be on your right are now on your left, and  
those above your head are now below . How would you ride a bike, read a book, or even walk through your home? Do you think you could ever adapt  
to this upside-down world?  
T o answer that question, psychologist George Stratton ([4.103]) invented, and for eight days wore, special prism goggles that flipped his view of the  
world from up to down and right to left. For the first few days, Stratton had a great deal of difficulty navigating in this environment and coping with  
everyday tasks. But by the third day , he noted:  
W alking through the narrow spaces between pieces of furniture r equir ed much less care than hitherto. I could watch my hands as they wrote, without  
hesitating or becoming embarrassed thereby .  
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By the fifth day , Stratton had almost completely adjusted to his strange perceptual environment, but when he later removed the headgear, he quickly  
readapted.  
Sensory Adaptation  
What does this experiment have to do with our everyday life? Stratton's study illustrates the critical role that sensory adaptationplays in the way we  
interpret the information that our brains gather . W ithout his ability to adapt his perceptions to a skewed environment, Stratton would not have been  
able to function. His brain's ability to retrain itself to interpret his new surroundings allowed him to create coherence from what would otherwise have  
been chaos.  
Perceptual Set  
As you can see in Figure4.29, our previous experiences, assumptions, and expectations also affect how we interpret and perceive the world by  
creating a perceptual set, or a readiness to perceive in a particular manner based on expectations (Buckingham & MacDonald, [4.16]; Dye & Foley ,  
[4.26]; Sella et al., [4.99]). In other words, we largely see what we expect to see.  
Figure 4.29 What  
is the middle  
figure?If you look  
at the letters from  
left to right, you  
see the middle  
figure as a B.  
However, if you  
look at it from top  
to bottom, you see  
the number 13.  
Can you see how  
the “environment”  
created a  
perceptual set that  
affected how you  
interpreted the  
visual stimulus in  
the middle of the  
figure?  
In some cases, our perceptual sets, or expectations, can have hazardous effects. Studies find that perceptual sets concerning the wearing of protective  
devices, like helmets, actually lead many people to incr easetheir risky behaviors (Fyhri & Phillips, [4.35]; Gamble & W alker , [4.36]; Phillips et al.,  
[4.79]). Why? Apparently , wearing or using safety devices unconsciously primes us to expect greater levels of protection, so we then feel freer to ski,  
bike, or drive motorcycles faster than we otherwise would!  
In a second example of the dangers of perceptual set, researchers asked both White and Black participants to play a video game in which they were  
told to shoot targets who were carrying a gun but not targets who were unarmed (Correll et al., [4.23]). Participants of both races made the decision to  
shoot an armed target more quickly if the target was Black, rather than White. They also chose NOT to shoot an unarmed target more quickly if the  
target was White, rather than Black. This study points to the influence of our expectations on real-life situations in which police officers must decide  
almost instantly whether to shoot a potential suspect—and may partially explain why Blacks are at greater risk than Whites of being accidentally shot  
by police officers.  
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Researchers have also examined how perceptual sets regarding race may influence judgments of football players (Hall & Livingston, [4.43]). In this  
study , participants read a scenario in which a Black or White NFL player scored a touchdown and then either showed no reaction to scoring or  
celebrated by spiking the ball and then doing his signature dance (see the photo). They were then asked to rate the player's level of arrogance and to  
determine if the player deserved a salary bonus for this touchdown. Perhaps not surprisingly, all players who celebrated after touchdowns were  
perceived as more arrogant than those who did not celebrate (regardless of race). Sadly, White players were seen as equally deserving of a bonus  
whether or not they had celebrated their touchdown, whereas Black players were judged as deserving a bonus only if they had NOT celebrated. These  
findings, termed the “hubris penalty ,” show that the same celebratory behavior is seen in different—and biased—ways as a function of the athlete's  
race. On a lighter note, perceptual sets may even influence our sex appeal, as described in the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Does W earing Red Increase Y our Sex Appeal?  
Do women wearing red have more sex appeal? To examine this question, researchers recruited women who had on-line dating profiles expressing  
interest in meeting a man and had posted color photographs (Guéguen & Jacob, [4.41]). Through the magic of Photoshop, the researchers changed the  
color of the woman's shirt in the photograph every 12 weeks: the color rotated at random through red, black, white, yellow, blue, and green. The  
women were asked to notify the researchers of how many e-mails they received from men during the eight- to nine-month period of the study. As  
hypothesized, women received more contacts from men when they wore red as opposed to any of the other five colors. In fact, they received about a  
5% increase in e-mails.  
Does the color red also impact a man's sex appeal? In a related study, researchers showed female college students photographs of a man who was  
wearing a red, white, blue, or green shirt (Elliot et al., [4.28]). They then asked the women to rate his attractiveness, as well as their interest in dating,  
kissing, and engaging in other types of sexual activity with him. As predicted, men who were wearing a red shirt seemed more powerful, attractive,  
and sexually desirable. This effect was also seen across a variety of cultures, including the United States, England, Germany , and China, suggesting  
that these links between the color red and perceptions of attractiveness are partially rooted in our biology , not merely social learning.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this research (Guéguen & Jacob, [4.41]; Elliot et al., [4.28]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or  
experimental research? (Tip: Be sure to look for two separate answers for the two different studies.)  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental groups(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to groups,  
list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
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Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and public  
reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical  
thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Frame of Reference  
Along with problems with perceptual sets, the way we perceive people, objects, or situations is also affected by the frame of r eference, or context. An  
elephant is perceived as much larger when it is next to a mouse than when it stands next to a giraffe. This is the reason professional athletes who  
make huge amounts of money sometimes feel underpaid: they're comparing what they make to the pay of those around them, who also make huge  
sums, and not to the average person in the United States!  
Science and ESP ?  
So far in this chapter, we've only discussed sensations provided by our eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and body senses. What about a so-called sixth sense?  
Can some people detect things that cannot be perceived through the usual sensory channels by using extrasensory perception (ESP)Those who claim  
to have ESP profess to be able to read other people's minds (telepathy), perceive objects or events that are inaccessible to their normal senses  
(clairvoyance), or see and predict the future (precognition). (Psychokinesis,the ability to move or change objects with mind power alone, such as the  
ability to levitate a table, is generally not considered a type of ESP because, unlike the other three alleged abilities, it does not involve the senses, in  
the way that, for example, “seeing” the future does.)  
In 1927, a professor at Duke University , J. B. Rhine, was apparently the first person to use the term ESP , and he is credited with developing the field  
of parapsychology, which studies paranormal phenomena, including ESP , ghosts, and other topics normally outside the realm of scientific  
psychology . As we discussed in Chapter 1, claims involving ESP generally fall under the name pseudopsychology ,and almost all studies of ESP have  
been successfully debunked or have produced weak or controversial results (Baptista et al., [4.3]; Lilienfeld et al., [4.57]; Schick & V aughn, [4.96]).  
Findings in ESP are notoriously “fragile” in that they do not hold up to scientific scrutiny.  
Perhaps the most serious weakness of ESP is its failure of replication by rivals in independent laboratories, which is a core requirement for scientific  
acceptance (Francis, [4.33]; Hyman, [4.47]; Rouder et al., [4.91]). (Recall also from Chapter 1 that magician James Randi and the Mac-Arthur  
Foundation offered $1 million to “anyone who proves a genuine psychic power under proper observing conditions.” But even after many years, the  
money was never collected!)  
Despite the lack of credible scientific evidence, a large percentage of adults in the United States believe in ESP (Gray & Gallo, [4.40]; Lamont,  
[4.55]; Moore, [4.70]). Why? One reason is that, as mentioned earlier in the chapter, our motivations and interests often influence our perceptions,  
driving us to selectively attend to things we want to see or hear. For example, a recent study found that the need to find meaning in life increases the  
belief in extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI) and that religious people are less likely to believe in ETI (Routledge et al., [4.92]).  
In addition, the subject of extrasensory perception often generates strong emotional responses. When individuals feel strongly about an issue, they  
sometimes fail to recognize the faulty reasoning underlying their beliefs. Belief in ESP is particularly associated with nonreflective, illogical, or  
noncritical thinking (Bouvet & Bonnefon, [4.13]; Gray & Gallo, [4.40]; Lindeman & Svedholm-Häkkinen, [4.60]). For example, people often fall  
victim to the confirmation bias, noting and remembering events that confirm personal expectations and beliefs (the “hits”) and ignoring  
nonsupportive evidence (the “misses”) (e.g., Rogers et al., [4.89]). Other times, people fail to recognize chance occurrences for what they are. Finally,  
human information processing often biases us to notice and remember the most vivid information. Rather than relying on scientific research based on  
analyzing numerous data points, we prefer colorful anecdotes and heartfelt personal testimonials.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessHelen Keller's Inspiring Advice  
In this chapter , we've seen how a number of internal and external factors can affect sensation as well as all three stages of perception—selection,  
organization, and interpretation. Thanks to the story of Helen Keller, we've also seen how crucial sensation and perception are to all parts of our lives.  
She learned to “see” and “hear” with her sense of touch and often recognized visitors by their smell or by vibrations from their walk. Despite the  
heightened sensitivity of her functioning senses, however, Helen professed a lifelong yearning to experience a normal sensory world. She gave this  
advice to those whose senses are “normal”—advice that can help you and your goal for achieving maximum personal success:  
I who am blind can give one hint to those who see: use your eyes as if tomorrow you would be stricken blind. And the same method can be applied to  
the other senses. Hear the music of voices, the song of a bird, the mighty strains of an orchestra as if you would be stricken deaf tomorrow . T ouch  
each object as if tomorrow your tactile sense would fail. Smell the perfume of flowers, taste with relish each morsel as if tomorrow you could never  
smell and taste again. Make the most of every sense; glory in all the facets of pleasure and beauty that the world reveals to you through the several  
means of contact which nature pr ovides.  
—Helen Keller (cited in Harrity & Martin, [4.44], p. 23)  
Retrieval Practice 4.4 Understanding Perception  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B,  
will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
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Self-T est  
1\.   
________Briefly explain how illusions differ from hallucinations and delusions.  
2\.   
In the ________shown here, the discrepancy between figure and ground is too vague, and we may have difficulty perceiving which is figure and  
which is ground.  
a. illusion  
b. reversible figure  
c. optical illusion  
d. hallucination  
3\.   
The tendency for the environment to be perceived as remaining the same even with changes in sensory input is called ________.  
a. perceptual constancy  
b. the constancy of expectation  
c. an illusory correlation  
d. Gestalt's primary principle  
4\.   
A readiness to perceive in a particular manner is known as ________.  
a. sensory adaptation  
b. perceptual set  
c. habituation  
d. frame of reference  
5\.   
Scientists sometimes find that one person will supposedly demonstrate ESP in one laboratory but not in another. This suggests that ________.  
a. replication of studies is useless  
b. one or both of the studies were probably flawed  
c. the researcher or the participant was biased against ESP  
d. ESP abilities have been scientifically proven to exist  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
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1\.   
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), you'll discover more about prejudice and discrimination. Using the term perceptual set, explain how prejudice and  
discrimination are different and how they both might be created.  
2\.   
In the Prologue to this textbook, you learned about Critical Thinking Components (CTCs), including employing a variety of thinking processes  
(behavioral), analyzing data for value and content (cognitive), and employing metacognition (cognitive). Discuss how each of these CTCs is relevant  
to the issue of extrasensory perception, or ESP .


	5. Chapter 5

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5.1 Understanding Consciousness  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize how selective attention and levels of awareness affect consciousness.  
•Defineconsciousness and altered states of consciousness (ASCs).  
•Describethe key factors in selective attention.  
•Reviewhow consciousness exists on various levels of awareness.  
Our normal waking consciousness is but one special type of consciousness, whilst all about it, parted from it by the  
filmiest of scr eens, there lie potential forms of consciousness entirely different.  
—William James (American Philosopher , Psychologist)  
This quote is from William James (1842–1910), one of the most famous early psychologists. What did he mean by  
“normal waking consciousness” and “entirely different” forms of consciousness? W e all commonly use the term,  
but what exactly is consciousness? Most psychologists define it as a two-part awareness of both ourselves and our  
environment (Li, [5.124]; Thompson, [5.197]). This dual-natured awareness explains how we can be deeply  
engrossed in studying or a conversation with others and still hear the ping of an incoming message on our cell  
phones. However, if we're deeply asleep, we probably won't hear this same message ping because sleep is an  
altered state of consciousness (ASC), which is defined as a temporary mental state other than ordinary waking  
consciousness. Later in this chapter we will discuss the ASCs of sleep, dreaming, meditation, and hypnosis. But we  
first need to explore the general nature of consciousness.  
Before going on, we need to address the apparently never-ending philosophical debates over the mind–body  
problem. Is the “mind” (consciousness and other mental functions) fundamentally different from matter (the body)?  
How can a supposedly nonmaterial mind influence a physical body and vice versa? Most psychologists today  
believe the mind isthe brain and consciousnessinvolves an activation and integration of several parts of the brain  
(Figure5.1). However, awareness is generally limited to the cer ebral cortex, particularly the frontal lobes, and  
arousal generally results from brain-stem activation.  
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Figure 5.1 Consciousness and our brain  
Selective Attention  
William James, quoted above, likened consciousness to a stream that's constantly changing yet always the same. It  
meanders and flows, sometimes where the person wills and sometimes not. The process of selective attention  
(Chapter 4) allows us to control this str eam of consciousnessthrough deliberate concentration and full attention.  
For example, when listening to a classroom lecture, your attention may drift away to thoughts of a laptop computer  
you want to buy or an attractive classmate. But you can catch and control this wandering stream of consciousness  
and willingly go back to selectively attending to the lecture.  
There's another aspect of selective attention that you may find fascinating. Sometimes when we're fully focused  
and selectively attending, we can fail to notice clearly visible stimuli, particularly if they're unexpected and we're  
otherwise distracted. A case in point, a Boston police officer chasing a shooting suspect on foot ran right past a  
brutal assault, but later claimed no memory of seeing the assault. Nevertheless, a jury convicted him of perjury and  
obstruction of justice (Lehr, [5.120]). Can you see how you might also fail to see such an assault if you were  
otherwise distracted?  
Another example of this surprising phenomenon, known as inattentional blindness, can be found in popular  
Y ouTube videos in which observers fail to notice a grown man dressed in a gorilla costume as he repeatedly passes  
through a group of people. These videos are based on a clever experiment that asked participants to count the  
number of passes in a videotaped basketball game. Researchers then sent an assistant, dressed in a full gorilla suit,  
to walk through the middle of the ongoing game. Can you predict what happened? The research participants were  
so focused on their pass-counting task that they failed to notice the person in the gorilla suit (Simons & Chabris,  
[5.177]).  
Surprisingly , when the participants later watched the video without having to count the basketball passes, most  
could not believe they had missed seeing the gorilla. Can you now see why magicians ask us to focus on a  
distracting element, such as a deck of cards or beautiful assistant, while they manipulate the real object of their  
magic—removing an unsuspecting volunteer's wallet or watch? More significantly, this type of inattentional  
blindness can lead to serious problems for police officers focused on chasing suspects who might miss seeing an  
unexpected brutal assault, pilots concentrated on landing their plane who might fail to see a flock of birds, or a  
driver texting on a cell phone who fails to see the red light. In case you're wondering, this type of “blindness” also  
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occurs in some of our other senses, such as inattentional deafness—failing to notice unexpected auditory stimuli  
when focusing on another task (Kreitz et al., [5.108]).  
Levels of A wareness  
As this example of inattentional blindness indicates, our str eam of consciousnessalso varies in its level of  
awareness. Consciousness is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon—conscious or unconscious. Instead, it exists along  
a continuum, ranging from high awareness and sharp, focused alertness at one extreme, to middle levels of  
awareness, to low awareness or even nonconsciousness and coma at the other extreme (Figure5.2).  
Figure 5.2 Levels of awareness  
As you can see from the figure, our level of awareness depends in part on whether we are engaged in controlledor  
automaticprocesses. When you're working at a demanding task or learning something new , such as how to drive a  
car , your consciousness is at the high end of the continuum. These controlled processesdemand focused attention  
and generally interfere with other ongoing activities (Cohen & Israel, [5.40]; Maher & Conroy, [5.135]; Peleg &  
Eviatar, [5.160]).  
In sharp contrast to the high awareness and focused attention required for controlled processes, automatic  
processesrequire minimal attention and generally do not interfere with other ongoing activities. Think back to your  
teen years when you were first learning how to drive a car and it took all of your attention (controlled processing).  
The fact that you can now effortlessly steer a car and work the brakes at the same time (with little or no focused  
attention) is thanks to automatic processing. In short, learning a new task requires complete concentration and  
contr olled processing. Once that task is well-learned, you can switch to automatic processing.  
The following Research Challenge offers further insights and practical applications on the importance of selective  
attention and levels of awareness.  
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Research Challenge What's Wrong with Distracted Driving?  
Thanks to repeated public service announcements and widespread media coverage, you've undoubtedly heard that  
using a cell phone while driving, including dialing, talking, texting, reaching for the phone, etc., greatly increases  
your risk of accidents and near collisions. In fact, research on all such forms of “distracted driving” firmly supports  
the dangers of cell phone use while driving (Dingus et al., [5.50]; Pope et al., [5.164]; Tucker et al., [5.199]). Even  
hands-free cell phones are essentially as risky to use as hand-held phones (Li et al., [5.126]).  
Given that motor vehicle crashes remain a leading cause of death and injury (LaV oie et al., [5.116]), and that we've  
all been repeatedly warned against cell phone use while driving, why is it still so common? Many drivers believe  
that talking on a cell phone while driving is no more dangerous than talking to another passenger. Is that true?  
Using the latest in driving simulators, researchers set up four distinct driving scenarios: (1) driving alone without  
talking on a cell phone, (2) driving while talking with a passenger but not talking on a cell phone, (3) driving alone  
while speaking on a hands-free cell phone to someone in a remote location, and (4) driving under the same  
conditions as in scenario 3, but the person in the remote condition can see the driver's face and the driving scene  
through a videophone (Gaspar et al., [5.70]).  
Note that in all conditions the drivers confronted fairly challenging highway situations, such as merging and  
navigating around unpredictable drivers in other cars. While the drivers were confronting these challenges,  
researchers measured the drivers' performance, including distance from other cars, speed, and collisions.  
What do you think happened? As you probably predicted, driving alone without talking on a cell phone (Condition  
1) was the safest option. The next safest option was when drivers talked with a passenger but not on a cell phone  
(Condition 2). In contrast, the likelihood of a collision tripled when drivers were talking on a cell phone to a person  
in a remote location who had no awareness of what was going on during the drive (Condition 3). Interestingly ,  
when the driver was talking to someone who was not in the car but was on a specially designed videophone, and  
hence could see both the driver's face and the view out the front windshield (Condition 4), the risks of collision  
were about the same as when the driver was just talking to a passenger (Condition 2). Can you see why? Like a  
passenger in the car, the remote viewer using the videophone could help the driver by stopping speaking and  
pointing out potentially dangerous situations while they were talking.  
What's the take-home message? Most of us are unaware of the limits of our attention and may mistakenly assume  
that we can safely drive while texting or talking on a cell phone. This study shows that traditional cell phone use is  
detrimental to driving precisely because it distracts the driver, while providing none of the assistance that a  
passenger in the car can typically provide.  
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T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Gaspar et al., [5.70]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or  
experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were  
not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is  
presented in most textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then  
comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of  
scientific research.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessCan Maximizing Y our Consciousness  
Save Lives?  
Before moving on, it's important to understand how several key concepts in this section have direct, real-world  
applications—especially to distracted driving. First, talking with a passenger and talking or texting while driving  
are all risky behaviors because they require shifting your selective attentionback and forth between what's on the  
road and your conversations. Second, given that people missed seeing someone dressed in a gorilla suit when they  
were distracted, can you see how any form of distracted driving also increases the possibility of inattentional  
blindnessto serious traffic hazards? Third, inexperienced drivers should decrease all forms of distraction and use  
fully focused contr olled processeswhile learning to drive, whereas experienced drivers are generally better  
equipped to handle a few distractions, such as talking to a passenger, because driving is largely an automatic  
processfor them (Klauer et al., [5.106]). However , it's still true that distracted driving remains a serious health  
threat to all drivers and passengers.  
As you've just seen, distractions often lead to potentially serious problems—especially when it comes to complex  
tasks, like driving and avoiding accidents. But distractions and multitaskingalso negatively affect our ability to  
learn. For example, in a Stanford University study that involved 100 college students, researchers ran a series of  
three tests with the participants divided into two groups—those who regularly multitasked and those who didn't.  
The outcomes for all three tests were consistent: The self-described multitaskers paid less attention to detail,  
displayed poorer memory , and had more trouble switching from one task to another compared to participants who  
preferred doing only one task at a time (Ophir et al., [5.156]). A more recent study found that heavy media  
multitasking among adolescents, such as watching TV while texting, was associated with lower scores on statewide  
standardized achievement tests of math and English, poorer performance on behavioral measures of executive  
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function (working memory capacity), and greater impulsivity and a lesser growth mindset—a key component to  
success (Cain et al., [5.29]).  
Can you see how this explains why trying to listen to a lecture or drive a car, while simultaneously texting or  
playing games on a smartphone, may threaten both your physical life and your academic GP A? What's the good  
news? Being distracted and multitasking aren't always necessarily bad. In fact, listening to music while exercising  
or relaxing while watching TV and simultaneously texting can be very beneficial. Just remember that when you're  
in a dangerous situation or trying to learn something that you will need to later recall, you need to focus and use  
your controlled processes (see the Study Tip).  
Study Tip  
Be sure to use highly focused, controlled processing while reading and studying this and other essential material.  
Also be aware that because reading is a well-learned, automatic process for most college students, you can't  
casually (automatically) read complex new material (like this text) if you want to do well on upcoming quizzes and  
exams.  
Control of consciousness determines the quality of life.  
—Mihaly Csikszentmihaly (Hungarian Author , Pr ofessor)  
Retrieval Practice 5.1 Understanding Consciousness  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Define consciousness.  
2\.   
Mental states other than ordinary waking consciousness, such as sleep, dreaming, and hypnosis, are known as  
________.  
a. altered states of consciousness  
b. intentional blindness  
c. automatic processes  
d. none of these options  
3\.   
Mental activities that require minimal attention without affecting other activities are called ________processes.  
a. controlled  
b. peripheral  
c. conscious  
d. automatic  
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4\.   
As you read this text, you should ________.  
a. be in an altered state of consciousness (ASC)  
b. employ controlled processing  
c. let your stream of consciousness take charge  
d. employ automatic processing  
5\.   
Which of the following is TRUE?  
a. Consciousness exists on a continuum.  
b. Selective attention allows us to control our stream of consciousness.  
c. Our consciousness varies in its level of awareness.  
d. All of these options are true.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 13 (Personality), you'll discover a lot about Freud and the psychoanalytic perspective—especially the  
unconscious mind. Describe how this chapter's levels of awareness differ from Freud's three levels of  
consciousness (the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious).  
.  
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5.2 Understanding Sleep and Dreams  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major processes that occur while we sleep and dream.  
•Describecircadian rhythms and how they affect our lives.  
•Reviewwhat happens during the various stages of sleep.  
•Compare and contrastthe key factors and theories concerning sleep and dreams.  
•Describethe major sleep–wake disorders and their possible treatment.  
Having explored the definition and description of everyday, waking consciousness and its properties of selective attention and levels of awareness,  
we now can explore two of our most common altered states of consciousness(ASCs)—sleep and dreaming. These ASCs are fascinating to both  
scientists and the general public. Why are we born with a mechanism that forces us to sleep and dream for approximately a third of our lives? How  
can an ASC that requires reduced awareness and responsiveness to our environment be beneficial in an evolutionary sense? What are the functions  
and causes of sleep and dreams? T o answer these questions and fully understand sleep and dreaming, we need to first discuss circadian rhythms.  
Circadian Rhythms and Sleep  
Most animals have adapted to our planet's cycle of days and nights by developing a pattern of bodily functions that wax and wane over each 24-hour period. For humans, these circadian rhythmsgovern our sleep cycles, alertness, core body temperature, moods, learning efficiency , blood  
pressure, metabolism, immune responses, and pulse rate (Goh et al., [5.72]; Gumz, [5.78]; Hori et al., [5.94]). See Concept Organizer5.1.  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 5.1 Explaining Circadian Rhythms  
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)  
Do you remember having trouble going to bed at a “reasonable hour” when you were a teenager and then having a really difficult time getting up  
each morning? This common pattern of staying up late at night and then sleeping longer in the morning appears to be a result of the natural shift in  
the timing of circadian rhythms that occurs during puberty (Carskadon et al., [5.30]; Miano, [5.143]; Paiva et al., [5.158]). This shift is caused by a  
delay in the release of the hormone melatonin. In adults, this hormone is typically released around 10 p.m., signaling the body that it is time to go  
to sleep. But in teenagers, melatonin isn't released until around 1 a.m.—thus explaining why it's more difficult for teenagers to fall asleep as early  
as adults or younger children do.  
Recognition of this unique biological shift in circadian rhythms among teenagers has led some school districts to delay the start of school in the  
morning. Research shows that even a 25- to 30-minute delay allows teenagers to be more alert and focused during class, and contributes to  
improvements in their moods and overall health (Boergers et al., [5.22]; Bryant & Gómez, [5.26]; W eintraub, [5.206]). More importantly , delaying  
the start of school in one large county in Kentucky was associated with a 16.5% decrease in car crashes among teenage drivers over the next two  
years (Danner & Philips, [5.45]).  
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As you've just seen, disruptions in circadian rhythms are particularly problematic for teenagers. However, such disruptions can put any of us at risk  
for serious health issues and personal concerns, including increased risk of cancer, heart disease, autoimmune disorders, obesity , sleep disorders,  
and accidents, as well as advanced aging and decreased cognitive abilities and productivity (e. g., Fang et al., [5.61]; Fleet et al., [5.63]; Lucassen et  
al., [5.131]).  
Those who suffer the most immediate and obvious ill effects from sleep and circadian disturbances tend to be physicians, nurses, police, and others  
—about 20% of employees in the United States—whose occupations require rotating “shift work” schedules. Typically divided into a first shift (8  
a.m. to 4 p.m.), second shift (4 p.m. to midnight), and third shift (midnight to 8 a.m.), these work shifts often change from week to week and clearly  
disrupt the workers' circadian rhythms. Some research suggests that productivity and safety increase when shifts are rotated every three weeks  
instead of every week and napping is allowed.  
Jet Lag and Circadian Rhythms  
Like shift work, flying across several time zones can disrupt our circadian rhythms, cause fatigue and irritability, decrease alertness and mental  
agility , and worsen psychiatric disorders (Chiesa et al., [5.38]; Sharma et al., [5.174]; Wieczorek et al., [5.207]). Such effects are often referred to as  
jet lag.  
Researchers have found that jet lag can have a significant effect on baseball teams. Specifically , it affects pitching location and velocity , which in  
turn impacts the number of home runs allowed (Song et al., [5.182]). These researchers suggest that starting pitchers for jet-lagged teams,  
particularly when flying eastward, might improve their pitching by traveling to the game location a few days ahead of the team to allow time to  
adjust to the new time zone.  
By the way , do you know why jet lag tends to be worse when we fly eastward rather than westward? It's because our bodies adjust more easily to  
going to bed later than to going to sleep earlier than normal.  
Sleep Deprivation  
One of the biggest problems with disrupted circadian rhythms is the corresponding sleep deprivation, which can lead to reduced cognitive and  
motor performance, irritability and other mood alterations, and increased cortisol levels—all clear signs of stress (Arnal et al., [5.6]; Collomp et al.,  
[5.41]; W olkow et al., [5.211]). Sleep deprivation also increases the risk of cancer, heart disease, and other illnesses, in addition to impairments in  
the immune system, which is one reason adults who get fewer than seven hours of sleep a night are four times as likely to develop a cold as those  
who sleep at least eight hours a night (CDC, [5.32]; Chaput & Dutil, [5.37]; Prather et al., [5.165]). Furthermore, sleep-deprived adolescents and  
adults are more likely to react emotionally , as shown in Figure5.3 (Demos et al., [5.48]). Surprisingly , when we're sleep deprived, we're also more  
likely to “remember” things that did not actually happen, a phenomenon you'll learn more about in Chapter 7 (Frenda et al., [5.66]).  
Figure 5.3 Sleep deprivation, emotionality ,  
and Impulse controlNote how our brain's  
emotional centers, particularly the amygdala  
(circled in red), are activated more under  
conditions of sleep deprivation. Research  
has clearly shown that sleep-deprived  
individuals are likely to respond with more  
emotionality (particularly to negative,  
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fearful stimuli) and less impulse control  
(Demos et al., [5.48]). Other studies find  
that sleep-deprived individuals are more  
aggressive and violent, as well as being  
more likely to perceive transgressions by  
others as negative and menacing (Barber &  
Budnick, [5.10]; Krizan & Herlache,  
[5.1 11]). These findings are further  
supported by archival research showing that  
sleep-deprived judges dole out longer  
sentences to criminals than when they are  
not sleep deprived (Cho et al., [5.39]).  
Perhaps the most frightening and immediate danger is that lapses in attention among sleep-deprived pilots, truck drivers, physicians, and other  
workers too often cause serious accidents and cost thousands of lives each year (Bougard et al., [5.25]; Gonçalves et al., [5.73]; Lee et al., [5.117]).  
Another serious concern is a recent plan to incr easethe existing 16-hour work limit for medical interns to 28 hours—without a break! Although  
one study found that interns could safely work these longer shifts (Bilimoria, [5.17]), the findings are controversial (Rau, [5.168]).  
The good news is that more restrictive safety regulations and stronger enforcement of the limited hours of service for medical interns, truck drivers,  
and other public personnel could offset many of these public dangers. If you're concerned about your own levels of sleep deprivation, take the twopart test in the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Are Y ou Sleep Deprived?  
T ake the following test to determine whether you are sleep deprived.  
Part 1Set up a small mirror next to this text and trace the black star pictured here, using your nondominant hand, while watching your hand in the  
mirror. The task is difficult, and sleep-deprived people typically make many errors. If you are not sleep deprived, it still may be difficult to trace the  
star , but you'll probably do it more accurately .  
Effects of sleep deprivation  
Insufficient sleep can seriously affect your college grades, as well as your physical health, motor skills, and overall mood.  
Part 2Give yourself one point each time you answer yes to the following:  
________1.   
I generally need an alarm clock or my cell phone alarm to wake up in the morning.  
________2.   
I sometimes fall asleep unintentionally in public places.  
________3.   
I try to take only late morning or early afternoon college classes because it's so hard to wake up early .  
________4.   
People often tell me that I look tired and sleepy .  
________5.   
I often struggle to stay awake during class, especially in warm rooms.  
________6.   
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I find it hard to concentrate and often nod off while I'm studying.  
________7.   
I often feel sluggish and sleepy in the afternoon.  
________8.   
I need several cups of coffee or other energy drinks to make it through the day .  
________9.   
My friends often tell me I'm less moody and irritable when I've had enough sleep.  
________10.   
I tend to get lots of colds and infections, especially around final exams.  
________11.   
When I get in bed at night, I generally fall asleep within four minutes.  
________12.   
I try to catch up on my sleep debt by sleeping as long as possible on the weekends.  
The average student score is between 4 and 6. The higher your number, the greater your level of sleep deprivation.  
Sources:Bianchi, [5.16]; Howard et al., [5.95]; National Sleep Foundation, [5.150]; Smith et al., [5.179].  
Stages of Sleep  
The woods are lovely , dark and deep. But I have pr omises to keep, and miles to go before I sleep.  
—Robert Frost (American Poet, Educator)  
Having discussed our daily circadian cycle and the problems associated with its disruption, we now turn our attention to our cyclical patterns and  
stages of sleep. W e begin with an exploration of how scientists study sleep. Surveys and interviews can provide general information, but for more  
detailed and precise data researchers in sleep laboratories use a number of sophisticated instruments (Concept Organizer5.2).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 5.2 Scientific Study of Sleep and DreamingData collected in sleep labs  
has helped scientists understand the stages of sleep.  
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Imagine that you are a participant in a sleep experiment. When you arrive at the sleep lab, you are assigned one of several bedrooms. The  
researcher hooks you up to various physiological recording devices, which will require a night or two of adaptation before the researchers can  
begin to monitor your typical night's sleep (Concept Organizer 5.2a). After this adaptation, if you're like most sleepers, you'll begin the sleep cycle  
with a drowsy , presleep state followed by several distinct stages of sleep, each progressively deeper (Concept Organizer 5.2b). Then the sequence  
begins to reverse.  
Note that we don't necessarily go through all sleep stages in this exact sequence (Concept Organizer 5.2c). But during the course of a night, people  
usually complete four to five cycles of light to deep sleep and then back up to light sleep. Each of these down and up cycles lasts about 90 minutes.  
Also note the two important divisions of sleep shown in Concept Organizer 5.2b and 5.3c: rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleepand non-rapid-eyemovement (NREM) sleep(Stages 1, 2, and 3).  
REM and NREM Sleep  
During REM sleep, your brain's wave patterns are similar to those of a relaxed wakefulness stage, as shown in Concept Organizer 5.2c.  
Interestingly , your eyeballs also move up and down and from left to right. This rapid eye movement is a signal that dreaming is occurring. In  
addition, during REM sleep your breathing and pulse rates become fast and irregular, and your genitals may show signs of arousal. Y et your  
musculature is deeply relaxed and unresponsive, which may prevent you from acting out your dreams. Many people mistakenly interpret this type  
of sleep paralysis as a sign of being in the deepest versus the lightest stage of sleep. Because of these contradictory qualities, REM sleep is  
sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep.  
Although dreams occur most frequently during REM sleep, they also sometimes occur during NREM sleep (Askenasy, [5.7]; Jones & Benca,  
[5.100]). Note how Stage 1of NREM sleep is characterized by theta waves and drowsy sleep—see again Concept Organizer 5.2c. During this  
stage, you may experience hypnagogic hallucinations, during which you might hear your name called or a loud noise, or feel as if you're falling or  
floating weightlessly . The sensation of falling is often accompanied by sudden muscle movements called myoclonic jerks. In Stage 2 sleep, muscle  
activity further decreases, and sleep spindles occur, which involve a sudden surge in brain wave frequency . Stages 1 and 2 are relatively light stages  
of sleep, whereas Stage 3 sleepinvolves the deepest stage of sleep, often referred to as slow wave sleep (SWS)or simply deep sleep. Sleepers  
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during this deep sleep are very hard to awaken, and if something does wake them, they're generally confused and disoriented at first. This is also a  
time that sleepwalking, sleep talking, and bedwetting occur . (Note that Stage 3 sleep was previously divided into Stages 3 and 4, but the American  
Academy of Sleep Medicine [AASM] removed the Stage 4 designation.)  
Try This Y ourself The Sleep Cycle in Cats  
During NREM (non–rapid-eye-movement) sleep, cats often sleep in an upright position. With the onset of REM sleep, cats normally lie down. Can  
you explain why?  
Why Do W e Sleep and Dream?  
There are many misconceptions about why we sleep and dream (see the Myth Busters). Fortunately, scientists have carefully studied what sleep and  
dreaming do for us and why we spend approximately 25 years of our life in these ASCs.  
Myth Busters True or False?  
Before reading the facts about each myth, place a check by any statement that you currently believe to be true.  
1\.   
________Everyone needs 8 hours of sleep a night to maintain sound mental and physical health.  
2\.   
________Dreams have special or symbolic meaning.  
3\.   
________Some people never dream.  
4\.   
________Dreams last only a few seconds and occur only in REM sleep.  
5\.   
________When genital arousal occurs during sleep, it means the sleeper is having a sexual dream.  
6\.   
________Most people dream only in black and white, and blind people don't dream.  
7\.   
________Dreaming of dying can be fatal.  
8\.   
________It's easy to learn new , complicated things, like a foreign language, while asleep.  
Facts:  
1.Fact: Although sleep needs vary across ages, lifestyle, and health, the recommended average is 7.6 hours of sleep a night for adults. But some  
get by on much less. For example, the legendary artist Leonardo Da Vinci reportedly slept less than two hours a night! And some may need as  
much as 11 hours (Blunden & Galland, [5.21]; Bootzin et al., [5.24]; National Sleep Foundation, [5.149]). As mentioned earlier, Albert Einstein  
reportedly liked to sleep 10 to 1 1 hours a night.  
2.Fact: Many people mistakenly believe that dreams can foretell the future, reflect unconscious desires, have secret meaning, reveal the truth, or  
contain special messages. But scientific research finds little or no support for these beliefs (Domhoff, [5.53], [5.54]; Hobson et al., [5.91];  
Lilienfeld et al., [5.128], [5.127]).  
3.Fact: In rare cases, adults with certain brain injuries or disorders do not dream (Solms, [5.181]). But otherwise, virtually all adults regularly  
dream, though many don't remember doing so. Even people who firmly believe they never dream report dreams if they are repeatedly awakened  
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during an overnight study in a sleep laboratory . Children also dream regularly ages 3 and 8, they dream during approximately 25% of their  
sleep time (Foulkes, [5.64], [5.65]; Mindell & Owens, [5.144]).  
4.Fact: Research shows that most dreams occur in real time. Dream that seemed to last 20 minutes probably did last approximately 20 minutes  
(Dement & W olpert, [5.47]). Dreams also sometimes occur in NREM sleep (Askenasy, [5.7]; Jones & Benca, [5.100]; Montangero &  
Cavallero, [5.146]).  
5.Fact: When sleepers are awakened during this time, they are no more likely to report sexual dreams than at other times.  
6.Fact: People frequently report seeing color in their dreams. Those who are blind do dream, but they report visual images only if they lost their  
sight after approximately age 7 (Bakou et al., [5.9]; Meaidi et al., [5.140]).  
7.Fact: This is a good opportunity to exercise your critical thinking skills. Where did this myth come from? Although many people have  
personally experienced and recounted a fatal dream, how would we scientifically prove or disprove this belief?  
8.Fact: Sleep is clearly essential for learning and memory consolidation, and some new learning can occur during the lighter stages (1 and 2) of  
sleep, but processing and retention of this material is minimal (Chambers & Payne, [5.35]; Lilienfeld et al., [5.127]; Takashima & Bakker,  
[5.188]). W akeful learning is much more effective and efficient.  
Four Sleep Theories  
How do scientists explain our shared need for sleep? There are four key theories:  
1.Adaptation/protection theoryThe most common explanation for sleep is that it evolved to conserve energy and provide protection from  
predators (Drew , [5.56]; T soukalas, [5.198]). From an evolutionary perspective, it's adaptive to sleep because it conserves calories, especially  
when food is scarce. Furthermore, sleeping at night helps us avoid becoming prey to animals that are more active at night. Indeed, as you can  
see in Figure5.4, animals vary greatly in how much sleep they need each day . Those with the highest likelihood of being eaten by others, a  
higher need for food, and the lowest ability to hide tend to sleep the least.  
Figure 5.4 A verage daily hours of sleep for different mammalsAccording to the adaptation/protection  
theory , differences in diet and number of predators affect different species' sleep habits. For example,  
opossums sleep many hours each day because they are relatively safe in their environment and are  
able to easily find food and shelter . In comparison, sheep and horses sleep very little because their  
diets require almost constant foraging for food in more dangerous open grasslands.  
2.Repair/restoration theoryAccording to this theory , sleep helps us recuperate from the depleting effects of daily waking activities. Essential  
chemicals and bodily tissues are repaired or replenished while we sleep, and the brain repairs itself and clears potentially toxic waste products  
that accumulate (Iliff et al., [5.98]; Konnikova, [5.107]; Underwood, [5.200]; Xie et al., [5.213]). W e recover not only from physical fatigue but  
also from emotional and intellectual demands (Blumberg, [5.20]). When deprived of REM sleep, most people “catch up” later by spending  
more time than usual in this state (the so-called REM rebound), which further supports this theory.  
3.Growth/development theoryIn line with this theory , the percentage of deepest sleep (Stage 3) changes over the life span and coincides with  
changes in the structure and organization of the brain, as well as the release of growth hormones from the pituitary gland—particularly in  
children. As we age, our brains change less, and we release fewer of these hormones, grow less, and sleep less.  
4.Learning/memory theoryThe fourth explanation for sleep centers on its role in learning and the consolidation, storage, and maintenance of  
memories (Bennion et al., [5.15]; Chambers & Payne, [5.35]; V orster & Born, [5.203]). This is particularly true for REM sleep, which increases  
after periods of stress or intense learning. For example, infants and young children, who generally are learning more than adults, spend far more  
of their sleep time in REM sleep (Figure5.5). Further support of the learning/memory theory comes from recent research that suggests sleep is  
necessary because we need to forget some of the unnecessary things we learn during the day (Diering et al., [5.49]). As you've discovered in  
other chapters, when we learn our brains grow new connections between neurons, thus enabling their signals between one another to become  
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faster and more efficient. However , these connections often become so excessive and “noisy” that they interfere with learning and memory .  
Therefore, our brains automatically pare back some unnecessary connections while we sleep (Zimmer, [5.220]).  
Figure 5.5 Aging and the sleep cycleOur biological need for sleep changes throughout our life  
span. The pie charts in this figure show the relative amounts of REM sleep, NREM sleep, and  
awake time the average person experiences as an infant, an adult, and an elderly person.  
Three Dream Theories  
As you can see, researchers have clearly shown that sleep serves a wide variety of vital functions. Although no one theory fully explains why we  
sleep, keep in mind that studying any topic from a variety of approaches yields a deeper understanding. Now let's look at three theories of why we  
dream—and whether dreams carry special meaning or information.  
One of the oldest and most scientifically controversial explanations for why we dream is Freud's wish-fulfillment view. Freud proposed that  
unacceptable desires, which are reportedly normally repressed, rise to the surface of consciousness during dreaming. W e avoid anxiety , Freud  
believed, by disguising our forbidden unconscious needs (what Freud called the dream's latent content) as symbols (manifest content) (Maggiolini  
& Codecà, [5.134]). For example, a journey supposedly symbolizes death; horseback riding and dancing could symbolize sexual intercourse; and a  
gun might represent a penis.  
Most modern scientific research does not support Freud's view (Domhoff & Fox, [5.55]; Hobson, [5.89]; Siegel, [5.175]). Critics also say that  
Freud's theory is highly subjective and that the symbols can be interpreted according to the particular analyst's view or training.  
In contrast to Freud's view , a biological view called the activation–synthesis theory of dreamssuggests that dreams are a by-product of random,  
spontaneous stimulation of brain cells during sleep, which the brain combines (synthesizes) into coherent patterns, known as dreams (Hobson,  
[5.87], [5.88]; W amsley & Stickgold, [5.204]). Alan Hobson and Robert McCarley ([5.90]) proposed that specific neurons in the brain stem fire  
spontaneously during REM sleep and that the cortex struggles to “synthesize,” or make sense of, this random stimulation by manufacturing dreams.  
This is notto say that dreams are totally meaningless. Hobson suggests that even if our dreams begin with essentially random brain activity, our  
individual personalities, motivations, memories, and life experiences guide how our brains construct the dream.  
Have you ever dreamed that you were trying to run away from a frightening situation but found that you could not move? The activation–synthesis  
hypothesis might explain this dream as random stimulation of the amygdala. As you recall from Chapter 2, the amygdala is a specific brain area  
linked to strong emotions, especially fear . If your amygdala is randomly stimulated and you feel afraid, you may try to run. But you can't move  
because your major muscles are temporarily paralyzed during REM sleep. T o make sense of this conflict, you might create a dream about a fearful  
situation in which you were trapped in heavy sand or someone was holding onto your arms and legs.  
Finally , other researchers support the cognitive view of dreams, which suggests that dreams are simply another type of information processing that  
helps us organize and interpret our everyday experiences. This view of dreaming is supported by research showing strong similarities between  
dream content and waking thoughts, fears, and concerns (Domhoff, [5.53]; Domhoff & Fox, [5.55]; Sándor et al., [5.169]). Like most college  
students, you've probably experienced what are called “examination anxiety” dreams. Y ou can't find your classroom, you're running out of time,  
your pen or pencil won't work, or you've completely forgotten a scheduled exam and show up totally unprepared. Sound familiar? Can you see how  
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this type of dream fits best with the cognitive view of dreams? T o test your mastery of the major dream theories, see the following Try This  
Y ourself. For more information about cultural differences in dreams, check out the Gender and Cultural Diversity feature.  
Try This Y ourself Practice Y our Critical Thinking  
The wish-fulfilment, activation-synthesis, and cognitive views of dreaming offer three widely divergent perspectives, and numerous questions  
remain. For example, how would the wish-fulfillment view of dreams explain why human fetuses show REM patterns? On the other hand, how  
would the activation–synthesis hypothesis explain complicated, story-like dreams or recurrent dreams? Finally, according to the cognitive view ,  
how can we explain dreams that lie outside our everyday experiences? And how can we explain Albert Einstein's belief that his first insight into  
relativity theory occurred during a dream where he saw a beam of light and imagined himself chasing after it at its own speed? Similar questions  
arise about Elias Howe's dream and his later famous invention of the sewing machine—as depicted in the following.  
Which of the three major theories of dreaming best explains Elias Howe's dream?  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Are There Differences in Dreams?  
Men and women tend to share many of the common dream themes shown in T able5.1. But women are more likely to report dreams of children,  
family members and other familiar people, household objects, and indoor events. In contrast, men tend to report dreams about strangers, violence,  
weapons, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events (Dale et al., [5.44]; Mathes et al., [5.138]; Mazandarani et al., [5.139]).  
T able5.1T op T en Common Dream Themes  
1.Being attacked or  
pursued  
2.Falling  
3.Sexual experiences  
4.Being lost  
5.Being paralyzed  
6.Flying  
7.Being naked in  
public  
8.School, teachers,  
studying  
9.Arriving too late  
10.Death of a loved  
one or dead people as  
alive  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Given that these 10 dream themes are found worldwide, what might be the  
evolutionary advantage of such dreams?  
2\.   
Imagine that someone marketed a drug that provided complete rest and  
recuperation with only one hour of sleep. However, it did stop you from  
dreaming. W ould you take the drug? Why or why not?  
Sources: Mathes et al., [5.138]; Mazandarani et al., [5.139]; Y u, [5.219].  
As a critical thinker, can you see how attitudes toward “proper” male and female gender roles might have affected what the participants were  
willing to report? For instance, might a male hesitate to report dreaming about caring for children? Might a female think it was inappropriate for  
her to report dreaming about guns and violence? Interestingly , a study of WWII prisoners of war found that their dreams contained less sexuality  
and even less aggression than the male norms (Barrett et al., [5.12]).  
Dreams about basic human needs and fears (like sex, aggression, and death) seem to be found in all cultures. Children around the world often  
dream about large, threatening monsters or wild animals. Furthermore, dreams in most cultures typically include more misfortune than good  
fortune, and the dreamer is more often the victim of aggression than the cause of it (Dale et al., [5.44]; Domhoff, [5.52], [5.53]; Krippner , [5.109]).  
Sleep–W ake Disorders  
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In any given year , an estimated 40 million Americans suffer from chronic sleep disorders, and another 30 million experience occasional sleep  
disorders serious enough to disrupt their daily activities (Larzelere & Campbell, [5.114]; National Sleep Foundation, [5.149]; Ng et al., [5.152]).  
Judging by these statistics, and perhaps by your own experiences, it's not surprising to learn that almost everyone has difficulty sleeping at some  
point in his or her lifetime. The most common and serious of these disorders are summarized in T able5.2.  
T able5.2Sleep-W ake Disorders  
Label Characteristics  
Insomnia Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep, or waking up too early  
Narcolepsy  
Sudden, irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours, such as sudden sleep attacks while standing,  
talking, or even driving  
Breathing-Related Sleep Disorder (Sleep  
Apnea)  
Repeated interruption of breathing during sleep, causing loud snoring or poor-quality sleep and  
excessive daytime sleepiness  
Nightmare Bad dream that significantly disrupts REM sleep  
NREM Sleep Arousal Disorder (Sleep  
T error)  
Abrupt awakening with feelings of panic that significantly disrupts NREM sleep  
Although it's normal to have trouble sleeping before an exciting event, as many as 1 person in 10 may suffer from insomnia. Those who suffer from  
this disorder may have persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep, or may wake up too early . Nearly everybody has insomnia at some time; a  
telltale sign is feeling poorly rested the next day . Most people with serious insomnia have other medical or psychological disorders as well  
(American Psychiatric Association, [5.5]; Bonnet & Arand, [5.23]; Primeau & O'Hara, [5.166]).  
As a college student, you'll be particularly interested to know that students who send a high number of text messages are more likely to experience  
symptoms of insomnia (Murdock, [5.148]). Why? Researchers believe that most students feel pressured to immediately respond to texts and may  
be awakened by alerts from incoming texts, which can reduce both the quality and quantity of their sleep. On a related note, another study found  
that 10 to 30% of Americans experience long-term, chr onicinsomnia, compared to only 2% of hunter gatherers living in Africa and South America  
(Y etish et al., [5.217]). Could it be that our American culture, with its smartphones, television, and hectic pace, is interfering with our need for  
good-quality sleep?  
T o cope with insomnia, many people turn to nonprescription, over-the-counter sleeping pills, which generally don't work. In contrast, prescription  
tranquilizers and barbiturates do help people sleep, but they decrease Stage 3 and REM sleep, seriously affecting sleep quality . In the short term,  
limited use of drugs such as Ambien, Dalmane, Xanax, Halcion, and Lunesta may be helpful in treating sleep problems related to anxiety and  
acutely stressful situations. However, chronic users run the risk of psychological and physical drug dependence (Maisto et al., [5.136]; Mehra &  
Strohl, [5.141]; T aylor et al., [5.194]). The hormone melatonin may provide a safer alternative. Some research suggests that taking even a relatively  
small dose (just .3 to .4 milligrams) can help people fall asleep and stay asleep (Hajak et al., [5.79]; Paul et al., [5.159]).  
Thankfully , there are many effective strategies for alleviating sleep problems without medication. For example, research shows that not watching  
television or using electronic devices, like your computer, iPad, eReader , or cell phone, around bedtime makes it much easier to fall asleep (Chang  
et al., [5.36]; van der Lely et al., [5.201]; W eir , [5.208]). Why? Exposure to the light from the screens on these devices disrupts the circadian  
rhythm and reduces the level of melatonin in the body by about 22%, which makes it more difficult to fall asleep (especially for children and  
teenagers). See the following Try This Y ourself for other recommendations about getting and staying asleep.  
Try This Y ourself  
Natural Sleep Aids  
Are you wondering what sleep experts recommend for sleep problems? Simple sleep hygiene tips and professional therapies provide consistent  
benefits that you can apply in your own life (Dolezal et al., [5.51]; Peterman et al., [5.161]; Taylor et al., [5.192]). When you're having a hard time  
going to sleep, don't keep checking the clock and worrying about your loss of sleep. In addition, remove all TVs, stereos, and books from your  
bedroom, and limit it to sleep rather than reading, watching movies, checking e-mail, and the like. If you need additional help, try some of the  
following suggestions.  
During the Day  
•Exercise. Daily physical activity works away tension. But don't exercise vigorously late in the day, or you'll get fired up instead.  
•Keep regular hours. An erratic schedule can disrupt biological rhythms. Get up at the same time each day.  
•A void stimulants. Coffee, tea, soft drinks, chocolate, and some medications contain caffeine. Nicotine may be an even more potent sleep  
disrupter .  
•A void late meals and heavy drinking. Overindulgence can interfere with your normal sleep pattern.  
•Stop worrying. Focus on your problems at a set time earlier in the day .  
•Use presleep rituals. Follow the same routine every evening: listen to music, write in a diary, meditate.  
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•Practice yoga. These gentle exercises help you relax.  
In Bed  
•Use progressive muscle relaxation. Alternately tense and relax various muscle groups.  
•Use fantasies. Imagine yourself in a tranquil setting. Feel yourself relax.  
•Use deep breathing. T ake deep breaths, telling yourself you're falling asleep.  
•Try a warm bath. This can induce drowsiness because it sends blood away from the brain to the skin surface.  
Narcolepsy, a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, afflicts about 1 person in 2,000 and generally runs in families (Ivanenko  
& Johnson, [5.99]; Lee & Radin, [5.118]; Williamson & W illiamson, [5.210]). During an attack, REM-like sleep suddenly intrudes into the waking  
state of consciousness. V ictims may experience sudden, incapacitating attacks of muscle weakness or paralysis (known as cataplexy). They may  
even fall asleep while walking, talking, or driving a car. The causes of narcolepsy are not fully understood, but researchers have discovered several  
genes believed to cause it in dogs and humans (Figure5.6). Sadly , although long naps each day and stimulant or anti-depressant drugs can help  
reduce the frequency of attacks, there is currently no known cure.  
Figure 5.6 NarcolepsyResearch on  
specially bred narcoleptic dogs has found  
degenerated neurons in certain areas of the  
brain (Siegel, [5.176]). Whether human  
narcolepsy results from similar  
degeneration is a question for future  
research. Note how this hungry puppy has  
lapsed suddenly from alert wakefulness to  
deep sleep even when offered his preferred  
food.  
Perhaps the most serious sleep disorder is sleep apnea. People with sleep apnea may fail to breathe for a minute or longer and then wake up gasping  
for breath. When they do breathe during their sleep, they often snore. Sleep apnea seems to result from blocked upper airway passages and/or the  
brain's failure to send signals to the diaphragm, thus causing breathing to stop.  
Unfortunately , people with sleep apnea are often unaware they have this disorder and fail to understand how their repeated awakening during the  
night leaves them feeling tired and sleepy during the day . More importantly , they should know that sleep apnea is linked with high blood pressure,  
strokes, cancer , depression, and heart attacks (Larzelere & Campbell, [5.114]; Lavie, [5.115]; T ekgol Uzuner & Uzuner, [5.195]).  
Treatment for sleep apnea depends partly on its severity . If the problem occurs only when you're sleeping on your back, sewing tennis balls to the  
back of your pajama top may help remind you to sleep on your side. Because obstruction of the breathing passages is related to obesity and heavy  
alcohol use (T an et al., [5.190]; Y amaguchi et al., [5.215]), dieting and alcohol restriction are often recommended. For other sleepers, surgery ,  
dental appliances that reposition the tongue, or CP AP (continuous positive airway pressure) machines that provide a stream of air to keep the  
airway open may provide help.  
Research suggests that even “simple” snoring (without the breathing stoppage characteristic of sleep apnea) is associated with heart disease,  
hypertension, and other serious illnesses (Deeb et al., [5.46]; Schwartz et al., [5.172]). Although occasional mild snoring is fairly normal, chronic  
snoring is a possible warning sign that should prompt people to seek medical attention.  
Sleepwalking, more formally known as somnambulism,usually occurs during the deepest stage of NREM sleep. (Recall that large muscles are  
paralyzed during REM sleep, which explains why sleepwalking normally occurs during NREM sleep.) Sleepwalking is normally harmless, and  
despite common beliefs, it's safe and advisable to awaken sleepwalkers, given that they may harm themselves while wandering around in the dark.  
An estimated 4% of U.S. adults—meaning over 8 million people—have at least one episode of sleepwalking each year. Sleep talking(also known  
as somniloquy) can occur during any stage of sleep, but it appears to arise most commonly during NREM sleep. It can consist of single, indistinct  
words or long, articulate sentences. It is even possible to engage some sleep talkers in a limited conversation.  
T wo additional sleep disturbances are nightmaresand sleep terrors(Figure5.7). Nightmares, sleep terrors, sleepwalking, and sleep talking are all  
more common among young children, but they can also occur in adults, usually during times of stress or major life events (Carter et al., [5.31];  
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Ivanenko & Johnson, [5.99]). Patience and soothing reassurance at the time of the sleep disruption are usually the only treatment recommended for  
both children and adults. However, some people, such as those with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), suffer from such disabling and  
frightening nightmares that they may be at risk for suicide, which generally requires professional intervention (Littlewood et al., [5.129]). See  
Chapters 3 and 15.  
Figure 5.7 Nightmare or  
sleep terror?Nightmares, or  
bad dreams, occur toward  
the end of the sleep cycle,  
during REM sleep. Less  
common but more  
frightening are sleep terrors,  
which occur late in the  
cycle, during Stage 3 of  
NREM sleep. Like the  
person in this photo,  
sleepers may sit bolt  
upright, screaming and  
sweating. They also may  
walk around, talk  
incoherently , and be almost  
impossible to awaken.  
Retrieval Practice 5.2 Understanding Sleep and Dreams  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B,  
will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe circadian rhythms.  
2\.   
The sleep stage marked by irregular breathing, eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, and dreaming is called ________sleep.  
a. beta  
b. hypnologic  
c. REM  
d. transitional  
3\.   
The ________theory says that sleep allows us to replenish what was depleted during daytime activities.  
a. repair/restoration  
b. evolutionary/circadian  
c. supply-demand  
d. conservation of energy  
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4\.   
The ________theory suggests dreams are by-products of random stimulation of brain cells.  
a. activation–synthesis  
b. manifest-content  
c. wish fulfillment  
d. information processing  
5\.   
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks is known as ________.  
a. dyssomnia  
b. parasomnia  
c. narcolepsy  
d. sleep apnea  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
1\.   
While dreaming, your brain is almost as active as it is when fully awake. Recalling what you learned in Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological  
Foundations), identify which parts of your brain would be active when dreaming that you are (a) playing the piano, (b) late for your final exam, (c)  
listening to a concert, (d) walking a tightrope.  
2\.   
In Chapter 1 (Introduction and Research Methods), you learned about Freud and the psychoanalytic perspective. In this chapter, the psychoanalytic  
perspective was applied to dreaming. Briefly describe a dream you have had, and then try to identify and explain its manifest and latent content.  
.  
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5.3 Psychoactive Drugs  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major issues and concepts associated with psychoactive drugs.  
•Identifypsychoactive drugs and the key terms associated with them.  
•Explainhow agonist and antagonist drugs produce their psychoactive effects.  
•Discussthe four major categories of psychoactive drugs.  
V irtually everyone routinely experiences the altered states of consciousness found in sleep and dreams. The vast  
majority of us also use psychoactive drugs(legal and/or illegal) to alter our moods, memory , concentration, and  
perception on a regular daily basis. As a busy college student, do you start your day with a routine cup of coffee?  
How about that glass of wine or a beer with your dinner that you use to help you relax after a hard day? If you're  
having trouble sleeping, do you reach for a couple of T ylenol PMs before going to bed? If you're like most people,  
you also manage to use these substances in moderation and without creating problems in your life. Therefore, you  
may be wondering why we're including these common drinks, pills, and behaviors as “drug use.” If so, you'll be  
particularly interested in the next section.  
Understanding Psychoactive Drugs  
In our society , where the most popular psychoactive drugsare caffeine, tobacco, and ethyl alcohol, people often  
become defensive when these drugs are grouped with illicit drugs such as marijuana and cocaine. Similarly,  
marijuana users are disturbed that their drug of choice is grouped with “hard” drugs like heroin. Most scientists  
believe that there are good and bad uses of almost all drugs. The way drug use differs from drug abuse and how  
chemical alterations in consciousness affect a person, psychologically and physically , are important topics in  
psychology .  
Alcohol, for example, has a diffuse effect on neural membranes throughout the nervous system. Most psychoactive  
drugs, however, act in a more specific way: by either enhancing a particular neurotransmitter's effect, as does an  
agonistdrug, or inhibiting it, as does an antagonistdrug (Step-by-Step Diagram5.1). Examples of agonist drugs  
are heroin and oxycodone. Naloxone is an example of an antagonist drug that is sometimes used to reverse a heroin  
overdose.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 5.1 Agonist and Antagonist Drugs and Their  
Psychoactive Effects  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to  
appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Most psychoactive drugs produce their mood, energy , and perception-altering effects by changing the body's supply  
of neurotransmitters.  
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Is drug abuse the same as drug addiction? The term drug abusegenerally refers to drug taking that causes emotional  
or physical harm to oneself or others. Drug consumption among abusers is also typically compulsive, frequent, and  
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intense. Addictionis a broad term that refers to a compulsive craving for a substance, thing, or activity despite  
harmful consequences. Although we're talking primarily about addiction in this section, the term is applied to  
almost any type of compulsive activity , from video gaming to surfing the Internet (Sdrulla et al., [5.173]; Y oung,  
[5.218]). In fact, the latest version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5), which officially classifies  
mental disorders, now includes gambling disordersin the substance-related and addictive disorders category  
(American Psychiatric Association, [5.5]). (Certain other disorders, including “sex addiction” and “exercise  
addiction” were not included because there was not enough evidence to support their inclusion.)  
In addition to distinguishing between drug abuse and addiction, many researchers distinguish between types of  
dependence. The term psychological dependencerefers to the mental desire or craving to achieve a drug's effects.  
In contrast, physical dependencedescribes changes in bodily processes that make a drug necessary for minimum  
daily functioning. Physical dependence appears most clearly when the drug is withheld and the user undergoes  
withdrawalreactions, including physical pain and intense cravings.  
Keep in mind that psychological dependence is no less damaging than physical dependence. The craving in  
psychological dependence can be strong enough to keep the user in a constant drug-induced state—and to lure an  
addict back to a drug habit long after he or she has overcome physical dependence.  
After repeated use of a drug, many of the body's physiological processes adjust to higher and higher levels of the  
drug, producing a decreased sensitivity called tolerance. T olerance leads many users to escalate their drug use and  
experiment with other drugs in an attempt to re-create the original pleasurable altered state. Sometimes using one  
drug increases tolerance for another, a result known as cr oss-tolerance. Developing tolerance or cross-tolerance  
does not prevent drugs from seriously damaging the brain, heart, liver, and other organs.  
Finally , note that some psychoactive drugs may induce symptoms of psychosis,which involves varying degrees of  
loss of contact with reality (see Chapter 15). For example, individuals who abuse high doses of amphetamines for  
an extended period of time may develop amphetamine psychosisand compulsively pick at their skin, believing bugs  
are burrowing beneath the outer layer . In addition to this type of hallucination(a false, imaginary sensory  
perception), some individuals may become paranoid and extremely afraid of others, even those they've known for a  
long time. Y ou can clearly see that someone who is experiencing these types of delusions(false, imaginary beliefs)  
or hallucinations is out of touch with reality and possibly extremely dangerous. Therefore, be very careful not to  
upset or antagonize such a person. The best way to help is to call 911. For more on how psychoactive drugs, and in  
particular, addiction, could affect your career , see the following.  
Psychology and Y our Professional SuccessPotential Car eer Costs of Addiction  
As previously noted, addiction is a broad term referring to a compulsive craving for a substance, thing, or activity  
despite harmful consequences. Sadly , for both the addict and those who love him or her , it's most often  
heartbreaking. In this section, we will examine the serious negative effects addiction can have on your academic  
and job success in at least five major areas:  
•Time management V irtually all compulsive behaviors are “time gobblers”! If you notice that your GP A is  
lower than you expect or that you're not advancing in your career, check out how much time you're spending on  
your various hobbies/addictions. For example, many college students and employees feel unreasonably  
compelled to check and use Facebook throughout the day and even late at night. What explains this type of  
addiction? Along with the self-reported “fear of missing out” (FOMO), researchers have found that using social  
media can create a high that's indistinguishable from that experienced during risky trading in the financial  
markets or with drug addiction (Buglass et al., [5.27]; Hong & Chiu, [5.92]; Suissa, [5.187]).  
•Quality and quantity of sleep Heavy TV viewing, alcohol and other drug use, gambling, or any addiction can  
slowly disrupt or destroy your career and academic life by leading to sleep deprivation. As described earlier,  
lack of sleep is associated with numerous problems, including reduced cognitive and motor performance, which  
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in turn affects your quality of work, productivity , and overall safety (Arnal et al., [5.6]; Barling et al., [5.11]).  
The lack of attention and concentration and slower reaction time associated with sleep deprivation also lead to  
many work-related injuries, accidents, and economic losses (Bougard et al., [5.25]; Lee et al., [5.117]).  
•Interpersonal relationships Due to the time-gobbling effect and the sleep losses associated with addictions, you  
may find it difficult to maintain successful social relationships with your classmates, coworkers, or employers.  
•Impression management Having a legal record of drug abuse or DUIs will obviously negatively affect potential  
employers' perceptions of you. What you may not know is that many employers now commonly use Facebook  
and other social media sites to recruit, evaluate, and potentially fire employees (Goodmon et al., [5.75]; Head et  
al., [5.81]; Landers & Schmidt, [5.113]). The safest rule is to never post anything you don't want your current or  
future bosses to see!  
•Overall performance Addictions are associated with inconsistent work quality, increased absenteeism, poorer  
concentration, and lack of focus, all of which lead to poorer overall academic and professional achievement. For  
example, marijuana is the drug most commonly used by college students, and research shows that it's linked  
with lower senior year enrollment, plans to graduate on time, GP A, and job performance (Firmin et al., [5.62];  
Suerken et al., [5.186]).  
In short, successful students, employees, and employers all know that they need to prioritize their studies and work  
in order to achieve. Each of us is allotted only 24-hours each day , and how we choose to spend this time is critical  
to our long-term success. What is more important to you—your addictions or your academic and professional life?  
If you need help, talk with your psychology instructor , college counselor , or other professionals.  
Four Drug Categories  
Psychologists divide psychoactive drugs into four broad categories: depressants, stimulants, opiates/opioids,and  
hallucinogens(T able5.3).  
T able5.3Effects of the Major Psychoactive Drugs  
Category Desired Effects Undesirable Effects  
Depressants (sedatives)  
Alcohol, barbiturates,  
anxiolytics (antianxiety or  
tranquilizing drugs),  
alprazolam (xanax),  
flunitrazepam (rohypnol,  
“date-rape drug,” “roofies”),  
ketamine (special K), gammahydroxybutyrate (GHB)  
T ension  
reduction,  
euphoria,  
disinhibition,  
drowsiness,  
muscle  
relaxation  
Anxiety , nausea,  
disorientation, impaired  
reflexes and motor  
functioning, amnesia,  
loss of consciousness,  
shallow respiration,  
convulsions, coma,  
death  
Stimulants  
Cocaine, amphetamine  
(“crystal meth,” “speed”), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA,  
“ecstasy ,” “molly”)  
Exhilaration,  
euphoria, high  
physical and  
mental energy ,  
reduced  
appetite,  
perceptions of  
power,  
sociability  
Irritability , anxiety ,  
sleeplessness, paranoia,  
hallucinations,  
psychosis, elevated  
blood pressure and  
body temperature,  
convulsions, death  
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Category Desired Effects Undesirable Effects  
Caffeine  
Increased  
alertness  
Insomnia, restlessness,  
increased pulse rate,  
mild delirium, ringing  
in the ears, rapid  
heartbeat  
Nicotine  
Relaxation,  
increased  
alertness,  
sociability  
Irritability , increased  
blood pressure,  
stomach pains,  
vomiting, dizziness,  
cancer , heart disease,  
emphysema  
Opiates/opioids (narcotics)  
Morphine, heroin (“H,”  
“smack,” “horse”), codeine,  
oxycodone  
Euphoria, “rush”  
of pleasure, pain  
relief,  
prevention of  
withdrawal,  
sleep  
Nausea, vomiting,  
constipation, painful  
withdrawal, shallow  
respiration,  
convulsions, coma,  
death  
Hallucinogens (psychedelics)  
L ysergic acid diethylamide  
(LSD), mescaline (extract from  
the peyote cactus), psilocybin  
(extract from mushrooms)  
Heightened  
aesthetic  
responses,  
euphoria, mild  
delusions,  
hallucinations,  
distorted  
perceptions and  
sensation  
Panic, nausea, longer  
and more extreme  
delusions,  
hallucinations,  
perceptual distortions  
(“bad trips”), psychosis  
Marijuana  
Relaxation, mild  
euphoria, nausea  
relief  
Perceptual and sensory  
distortions,  
hallucinations, fatigue,  
increased appetite, lack  
of motivation, paranoia,  
possible psychosis  
Depressants  
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The group of drugs called depressants, sometimes called “downers,” act on the central nervous system to suppress  
or slow bodily processes and reduce overall responsiveness. Because tolerance and both physical and psychological  
dependence are rapidly acquired with these drugs, there is strong potential for abuse.  
Although alcohol is primarily a depressant, at low doses it has stimulating effects, thus explaining its reputation as a  
“party drug.” As consumption increases, symptoms of drunkenness appear . Alcohol's effects are determined  
primarily by the amount that reaches the brain (T able5.4). Because the liver breaks down alcohol at the rate of  
about one ounce per hour, the number of drinks and the speed of consumption are both very important. People can  
die after drinking large amounts of alcohol in a short period of time. Moreover, men's bodies are more efficient than  
women's at breaking down alcohol. Even after accounting for differences in size and muscle-to-fat ratio, women  
have a higher blood-alcohol level than men following equal doses of alcohol.  
T able5.4Alcohol's Effect on Y our Body and Behavior  
Number of  
Drinks  
a  
in T wo  
Hours  
Blood  
Alcohol  
Content  
(%)  
b  
Effect  
0.02. to  
0.05  
Relaxed state but  
reduced inhibitions,  
impaired judgment, and  
lowered willpower  
Fun partying or …?Despite the personal risks associated with  
alcohol shown in this table, binge drinking and drunkenness  
remain common among college students. As you undoubtedly  
know , alcohol use also poses serious dangers to others, including  
drunk driving, sexual aggression, and intimate partner violence  
(Crane et al., [5.42]; Gilmore & Bountress, [5.71]; Li et al.,  
[5.123]).  
0.05 to  
0.10  
Increased confidence  
and feelings of euphoria,  
but balance,  
coordination, speech,  
vision, and hearing  
somewhat impaired  
0.10 to  
0.15  
Distinct impairment of  
mental faculties  
(judgment,  
concentration,  
reasoning, memory),  
slurred speech, poor  
coordination, and  
delayed reaction time  
0.15 to  
0.20  
Obvious intoxication,  
bloodshot eyes, and  
major loss of balance  
and coordination, along  
with major impairment  
of mental faculties  
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Number of  
Drinks  
a  
in T wo  
Hours  
Blood  
Alcohol  
Content  
(%)  
b  
Effect  
0.20 to  
0.40  
Severe intoxication,  
minimal control of mind  
and body ,  
unconsciousness; high  
possibility of coma and  
death at the upper limit  
of 0.40  
aa  
A drink refers to one 12-ounce beer, a 4-ounce glass of wine, or a 1.25-ounce shot of hard liquor .  
bb  
ln the United  
States, the legal blood alcohol level for “drunk driving” varies from 0.05 to 0.12.  
One of the most common, but seldom mentioned, risks with alcohol is that college students are more likely to have  
unprotected sex on days they binge drink, which may lead to serious problems such as STDs and unplanned  
pregnancies (Kerr et al., [5.103]). Sadly , overuse of alcohol and binge drinking has also been linked with major  
sexual crimes (Figure5.8).  
Figure 5.8 Alcohol and rapeIn  
January 2016, 20-year-old Brock  
Turner was caught in the act and  
later convicted of sexually assaulting  
an unconscious woman he met  
earlier at a fraternity party . At the  
time of the rape, T urner's blood  
alcohol concentration was .17, twice  
the legal limit for driving. T urner  
was sentenced to six months in jail,  
was expelled from Stanford  
University , and must register as a  
sexual off ender for the rest of his  
life.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
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Numerous protests erupted following the judge's sentencing of Brock Turner to six months. Many believed that  
such a short jail term was inappropriate in light of his crime. What do you think?  
2\.   
Given alcohol's widely accepted social role in many college functions, what could we do to decrease its link with  
sexual assault?  
Before going on, you should also know that alcohol can be very dangerous when combined with certain other  
drugs. For example, combining alcohol and barbiturates—both depressants—can relax the diaphragm muscles to  
such a degree that the person suffocates (Marczinski, [5.137]). Does this information surprise you? T ake the quiz in  
the following Myth Busters to discover if some of your other ideas about alcohol are really misconceptions.  
Myth Busters True or False?  
________1.   
Alcohol increases sexual desire.  
________2.   
Alcohol helps you sleep.  
________3.   
Alcohol kills brain cells.  
________4.   
It's easier to get drunk at high altitudes.  
________5.   
Switching among different types of alcohol is more likely to lead to drunkenness.  
________6.   
Drinking coffee and taking a cold shower are great ways to sober up after heavy drinking.  
________7.   
Alcohol warms the body .  
________8.   
Y ou can't become an alcoholic if you drink only beer.  
________9.   
Alcohol's primary effect is as a stimulant.  
________10.   
People experience impaired judgment after drinking only if they show obvious signs of intoxication.  
Answers:All these statements are false. Detailed answers are provided in this chapter and in Lilienfeld et al.,  
[5.128].  
Stimulants  
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Whereas depressants suppress central nervous system activity, stimulants, or “uppers,” increase the overall activity  
and responsiveness of the central nervous system. Like depressants, stimulants also involve the potential for abuse.  
Cocaine is a powerful central nervous system stimulant extracted from the leaves of the coca plant. It produces  
feelings of alertness, euphoria, well-being, power, energy , and pleasure. But it also acts as an agonist drugto block  
the reuptake of our body's natural neurotransmitters that produce these same effects. As you can see in Figure5.9,  
cocaine's ability to block reuptake allows neurotransmitters to stay in the synapse longer than normal—thereby  
artificially prolonging the effects and depleting the user's neurotransmitters.  
a. Normal neurotransmitter reuptake  
The two figures above depict how after releasing neurotransmitter into the synapse, the  
sending neuron normally reabsorbs (or reuptakes) excess neurotransmitter back into the  
vesicles, called terminal buttons.  
b. Cocaine blocks neurotransmitter reuptake  
This figure shows that when cocaine is present in the synapse, it will block the reuptake  
of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, and levels of these substances will increase.  
The result is overstimulation and a brief euphoric high. When the drug wears off, the  
depletion of the normally reabsorbed neurotransmitters may cause the drug user to  
“crash.”  
Figure 5.9 Cocaine: An agonist drug in action  
Surprisingly , cocaine was once widely used by doctors and dentists for numbing purposes, and many medicines as  
well as early Coca-Cola sodas contained traces of cocaine (Figure5.10). Some people today still consider it to be a  
relatively harmless “recreational drug.” However, even small initial doses can be fatal because cocaine interferes  
with the electrical system of the heart, causing irregular heartbeats and, in some cases, heart failure. It also can  
produce heart attacks, hypertension, and strokes by temporarily constricting blood vessels, as well as cognitive  
declines and brain atrophy (Levinthal, [5.121]; Siniscalchi et al., [5.178]; V onmoos et al., [5.202]). In fact, the  
combined use of cocaine and alcohol may be the major cause of drug-related deaths (Burnett et al., [5.28]). Note  
too that the most dangerous form of cocaine is the smokable, concentrated version known as “crack,” or “rock.” Its  
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lower price makes it affordable and attractive to a large audience. And its greater potency makes it more highly  
addictive.  
Figure 5.10 History of psychoactive drugsBefore  
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulated  
the sale of such drugs as heroin, opium, and cocaine,  
they were commonly found in over-the-counter ,  
nonprescription drugs.  
Even legal stimulants can lead to serious problems. For example, cigarette smoking is among the most preventable  
causes of death and disease in the United States, and tobacco-related illnesses are among the leading economic  
concerns and causes of death worldwide (Goodchild et al., [5.74]; Herbst et al., [5.83]; W orld Facts, [5.212]). Like  
smoking, chewing tobacco is also extremely dangerous. Sadly , in 2014 fans mourned the loss of Hall of Fame  
baseball player T ony Gwynn, who died of mouth cancer, which he attributed to his lifelong use of chewing tobacco.  
Gwynn's family later filed a wrongful-death lawsuit against the tobacco industry on the grounds of negligence,  
fraud, and product liability (Kepner , [5.102]).  
Given these well-known health hazards and the growing stigma against tobacco users, why do people ever start  
using tobacco? T wo of the most compelling reasons are that nicotine is highly addictive and it offers significant  
cognitive rewards (Castaldelli-Maia et al., [5.34]; Herman et al., [5.84]; Li et al., [5.125]). In fact, nicotine's effects  
—relaxation, increased alertness, and diminished pain and appetite—are so powerfully reinforcing that some people  
continue to smoke even after having a cancerous lung removed.  
Opiates/Opioids  
The drugs known as opiates/opioids, or narcotics, are derived from the opium poppy . They're sometimes classified  
as depressants because they do depress the central nervous system (CNS). However, they also excite areas of the  
CNS. Opiates like morphine and oxycodone are used medically to relieve pain because they mimic the brain's  
natural endorphins (Chapter 2), which numb pain and elevate mood (Satterly & Anitescu, [5.170]). Can you see  
how this dangerous combination might create a pathway to drug abuse (see Figure5.11)? After repeated flooding  
with opiates/opioids, the brain eventually reduces or stops the production of its own natural, pain-reducing  
endorphins. If the user later attempts to stop, the brain lacks both artificial and natural pain-killing chemicals, and  
withdrawal becomes excruciatingly painful (Figure5.12).  
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a. Death of a Prince  
In May 2016, world-famous  
musician Prince died at the age  
of 57 due to an opioid overdose  
and possible addiction to  
painkillers (Eldred & Eligon,  
[5.58]; Eligon et al., [5.59]).  
b. Midlife mortality  
The chart shows mortality from  
all causes, ages 45–54, for U.S.  
White non-Hispanics (USW),  
U.S. Hispanics (USH), and  
people in six comparison  
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countries. As you can see,  
mortality rates have risen only  
for U.S. White non-Hispanics  
(Case & Deaton, [5.33]). This  
is particularly true for those  
with only a high school  
education or less. Increased  
rates of suicide and drug use  
along with economic  
inequality , have been cited as  
causes of the increase (Grigsby ,  
[5.77]; Stiglitz, 2016). Some  
suggest that declining health  
among middle-aged White  
Americans helps explain the  
current political reaction on the  
right (e.g., Starr , [5.184]). What  
do you think?  
Figure 5.11 The high cost of  
drug abuseOpiate/opioid abuse  
and addiction have recently  
been called the worst drug  
crisis in American history—  
rivaling the number of deaths  
from AIDS in the 1990s, with  
drug overdose fatalities now  
outnumbering deaths resulting  
from car accidents or guns  
(Grigsby , [5.77]; Katz, [5.101];  
Nolan & Amico, [5.155]). The  
number of children and  
teenagers who have been  
hospitalized and/or died from  
prescription opioid poisoning  
also has risen dramatically in  
the last few years (Gaither et  
al., [5.68]).  
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Figure 5.12 How opiates/opioids may create physical dependencePsychoactive drugs such as  
opiates/opioids affect the brain and body in a variety of ways.  
Hallucinogens  
Our fourth category of drugs, hallucinogens, produce sensory or perceptual distortions, including visual, auditory ,  
and kinesthetic hallucinations. Some cultures have used hallucinogens for religious purposes, as a way to  
experience “other realities” or to communicate with the supernatural. However, in W estern societies, most people  
use hallucinogens for their reported “mind-expanding” potential.  
Hallucinogens are commonly referred to as psychedelics(from the Greek for “mind manifesting”). They include  
mescaline (derived from the peyote cactus), psilocybin (derived from mushrooms), PCP (phencyclidine, chemically  
derived), and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide, derived from ergot, a rye mold). For many years, people who have  
used psychedelic drugs have claimed that the drugs allowed them to reach a “higher state of consciousness,” and  
recent studies do back them up (e.g., Pultarova, [5.167]; Schartner et al., [5.171]). Brain scans have shown that  
neural activity in users' brains was, in fact, higher than during normal waking consciousness.  
What are these experiences like? LSD, or “acid,” produces dramatic alterations in sensation and perception,  
including an altered sense of time, synesthesia (blending of the senses), and spiritual experiences. Perhaps because  
the LSD experience is so powerful, few people “drop acid” on a regular basis. Nevertheless, LSD can be an  
extremely dangerous drug. Bad LSD “trips” can be terrifying and may lead to accidents, deaths, or suicide. One 32-year-old man, with no known psychiatric disorder , intentionally removed his own testes after his first and only use  
of LSD combined with alcohol (Blacha et al., [5.19])!  
Marijuana, or cannabis, is generally classified as a hallucinogen even though it has some properties of a depressant  
—it induces drowsiness and lethargy—and some of a narcotic—it acts as a weak painkiller. In low doses, marijuana  
produces mild euphoria; moderate doses may lead to an intensification of sensory experiences and the illusion that  
time is passing slowly . High doses may produce hallucinations, delusions, and distortions of body image (Bechtold  
et al., [5.13]; Maisto et al., [5.136]). The active ingredient in marijuana is THC, or tetrahydrocannabinol, which  
attaches to receptors that are abundant throughout the brain.  
Some research has found marijuana to be therapeutic in treating glaucoma (an eye disease), and alleviating the  
nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy , as well as in dealing with chronic pain and other health  
problems (Loflin & Earleywine, [5.130]; Piomelli, [5.162]; Wilkie et al., [5.209]). In response to its potential  
medical benefits, and to free up police resources for fighting serious crime, many states have passed laws legalizing  
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marijuana for medical and/or recreational use. However, it remains relatively controversial for a variety of reasons  
(Alpár et al., [5.4]; Pacek et al., [5.157]).  
One controversy involves possible health effects. Some researchers have reported several negative effects, such as  
chronic respiratory problems, reduced sperm count, psychosis, and disruption of the menstrual cycle and ovulation  
(e.g., Gage et al., [5.67]; Harley et al., [5.80]; National Academies of Sciences [5.149]). On the other hand, a  
longitudinal study that followed over a thousand cannabis versus tobacco users from the ages of 18 to 38 found no  
increase in physical health problems for the cannabis users, other than poorer periodontal health (Meier et al.,  
[5.142]).  
Along with the conflicting research on possible health problems, some research supports the popular belief that  
marijuana serves as a “gateway” to other illegal drugs. However, other studies find little or no connection (Firmin et  
al., [5.62]; Levinthal, [5.121]; Mosher & Akins, [5.147]).  
A third area with contradictory research has to do with cognitive functioning. Some studies report that marijuana  
use leads to decreases in IQ, educational achievement, and overall cognitive functioning (Suerken et al., [5.186];  
Thames et al., [5.196]). However, these findings have been questioned by a study on over two thousand teenagers  
(Mokrysz et al., [5.145]). As discussed in Chapter 1, correlational studies are always subject to the thir d-variable  
problem. A case in point, some earlier correlational studies that identified a connection between marijuana use and  
lowered IQ may have failed to control for the influence of cigarette smoking—the third variable. When the  
researchers in this last study isolated cigarette smoking, they found it to be the best predicting factor for lowered  
IQ.  
As you can see, marijuana remains a controversial drug, and more research is needed. While waiting for more  
conclusive research, keep in mind that marijuana, like virtually all drugs, can cause pregnancy complications, and  
its regular use before age 18 is particularly hazardous because the brain is still developing. In addition, some  
researchers still believe that over time persistent use and dependence may be linked to psychotic illnesses and  
cognitive and motor declines (Alpár et al., [5.4]; Ganzer et al., [5.69]; Lu & Mackie, [5.131]). Furthermore,  
marijuana can be habit forming, though few users experience the intense cravings associated with cocaine or  
opiates/opioids. Withdrawal symptoms are mild because the drug dissolves in the body's fat and leaves the body  
very slowly , which explains why a marijuana user can test positive for days or weeks after the last use.  
Club Drugs  
As you may know from television or newspapers, psychoactive drugs like Rohypnol (the “date rape drug,” also  
called “roofies”), MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine, or Ecstasy), GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyrate),  
ketamine (“special K”), methamphetamine (“ice” or “crystal meth”), “bath salts,” and LSD are all sometimes called  
“club drugs.” This name reflects the fact that they're often used by teenagers and young adults at parties, bars, and  
nightclubs (NIDA, [5.153]). Unfortunately , these drugs can have very serious consequences (Dunne et al., [5.57];  
NIDA, [5.153]; W eaver et al., [5.205]). For example, recreational use of Ecstasy is associated with potentially fatal  
damage to hippocampal cells in the brain, as well as a reduction in the neurotransmitter serotonin, which can lead to  
memory , sleep, mood, and appetite problems (Asl et al., [5.8]; Levinthal, [5.121]).  
On the other hand, the club drug ketamine, “special K,” shows promise as a treatment for major depression, suicidal  
behaviors, and bipolar disorders. Research has found that it appears to have an immediate and positive effect on  
parts of the brain responsible for executive functioning and emotion regulation (Kishimoto et al., [5.105]; Lee et al.,  
[5.1 19]; Li et al., [5.122]).  
Despite this one encouraging research finding and the favorable reports of some users, bear in mind that club drugs,  
like all illicit drugs, are particularly dangerous because there are no truth-in-packaging laws to protect buyers from  
unscrupulous practices. Sellers often substitute cheaper, and possibly even more dangerous, substances for the ones  
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they claim to be selling. Also, club drugs (like most psychoactive drugs) affect the motor coordination, perceptual  
skills, and reaction time necessary for safe driving, bicycle riding, or even walking.  
Impaired decision making is a serious problem as well. Just as “drinking and driving don't mix,” club drug use may  
lead to risky sexual behaviors with increased risk of sexually transmitted infections. Add in the fact that some  
drugs, like Rohypnol, are odorless, colorless, and tasteless and can easily be added to beverages by individuals who  
want to intoxicate or sedate others, and you can see that the dangers of club drug use go far beyond the drugs  
themselves.  
I don't do drugs, my dr eams ar e frightening enough.  
—M. C. Escher (Dutch Graphic Artist)  
Retrieval Practice 5.3 Psychoactive Drugs  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button  
or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Psychoactive drugs ________.  
a. change conscious awareness, mood, or perception  
b. are addictive, mind altering, and dangerous to your health  
c. are illegal unless prescribed by a medical doctor  
d. have all these effects  
2\.   
Drug taking that causes emotional or physical harm to the drug user or others is known as ________.  
a. addiction  
b. physical dependence  
c. psychological dependence  
d. drug abuse  
3\.   
Briefly explain how agonist drugs differ from antagonist drugs.  
4\.   
________act on the brain and nervous system to increase overall activity and responsiveness.  
a. Stimulants  
b. Opiates/opioids  
c. Depressants  
d. Hallucinogens  
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5\.   
Depressants include all the following except ________.  
a. antianxiety drugs  
b. alcohol  
c. tobacco  
d. Rohypnol  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 3 (Stress and Health Psychology), you learned that some people with posttraumatic stress disorder  
(PTSD) turn to alcohol and other drugs to help reduce or cope with the stress. Based on what you discovered about  
the effects of alcohol in this chapter , how might this behavior make the symptoms of PTSD worse?  
.  
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Print this page  
5.4 Meditation and Hypnosis  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major features of meditation and hypnosis.  
•Describemeditation and its major effects.  
•Identifyhypnosis, its key features, and its major myths.  
As we have seen, factors such as sleep, dreaming, and psychoactive drug use can create altered states of  
consciousness (ASCs). Changes in consciousness also can be achieved by means of meditation and hypnosis.  
Meditation  
Suddenly , with a r oar like that of a waterfall, I felt a stream of liquid light entering my brain through the spinal  
cor d … I experienced a rocking sensation and then felt myself slipping out of my body, entir ely enveloped in a halo  
of light. I felt the point of consciousness that was myself growing wider , surr ounded by waves of light.  
—Jiddu Krishnamurti (Indian Philosopher , Speaker , W riter)  
This is how spiritual leader Krishnamurti described his experience with meditation, a group of techniques generally  
designed to focus attention, block out distractions, and produce an ASC (Figure5.13). Most people in the  
beginning stages of meditation report a simpler, mellow type of relaxation, followed by a mild euphoria and a  
sense of timelessness. Some advanced meditators report experiences of profound rapture, joy , and/or strong  
hallucinations.  
a. V arieties of meditation  
Some meditation techniques, such as  
tai chi and hatha yoga, include body  
movements and postures. In other  
techniques, the meditator remains  
motionless, chanting or focusing on a  
single point, like a candle flame.  
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b. Sympathetic and parasympathetic  
changes  
During meditation, the hypothalamus  
diminishes the sympathetic response  
and increases the parasympathetic  
response. Shutting down the fightflight-freeze response in this way  
allows for deep rest, slower  
respiration, and overall relaxation.  
c. Sensory responses  
Researchers have found that an  
increased area of the brain responds  
to sensory stimuli during meditation,  
which also suggests that meditation  
enhances the coordination between  
the brain hemispheres (Kilpatrick et  
al., [5.104]; Kurth et al., [5.112]).  
Note how much the blue-colored  
areas enlarged and spread from the  
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right to the left hemisphere during  
meditation.  
Figure 5.13 Benefits of meditation  
How can we explain these effects? Brain imaging studies suggest that meditation's requirement to focus attention,  
block out distractions, and concentrate on a single object, emotion, or word reduces the number of brain cells that  
must be devoted to the multiple, competing tasks normally going on within the brain's frontal lobes. This narrowed  
focus explains the feelings of timelessness and mild euphoria. This increased concentration also may explain  
Albert Einstein's famous saying that, “No problem can be solved from the same level of consciousness that created  
it.” Can you see that this quote might be referring to the mind's normal, constant chattering of thoughts? Meditation  
is believed to disrupt this chatter , raise consciousness, and increase cognitive processing.  
Research has also verified that meditation can produce dramatic changes in basic physiological processes,  
including heart rate, oxygen consumption, sweat gland responses, and brain activity . In addition, it's been  
somewhat successful in reducing pain, anxiety , and stress; lowering blood pressure; and improving overall  
cognitive functioning and mental health (Crescentini et al., [5.43]; Heffner et al., [5.82]; T aylor & Abba, [5.193]).  
Surprisingly , a meta-analysis (which combines results from multiple studies) revealed that 30 minutes of  
meditation may provide as much relief from anxiety and depression as antidepressants (Goyal et al., [5.76]).  
As you can see in Figures5.13b and 5.13c, studies have also found that meditation can change the body's  
sympathetic and parasympathetic responses and increase our responsiveness to sensory stimuli, as well as  
improving our decision making, emotion regulation, and attention processing (Esch, [5.60]; T ang et al., [5.191];  
Xue et al., [5.214]).  
A number of elite athletes use meditation to help prepare for competition. To help control arousal and pregame  
“jitters,” NBA coach Phil Jackson led his LA Lakers team in meditation before games, former MLB star Derek  
Jeter meditated for an hour each day on non-game days, and marathon runner Deena Kastor meditates to reduce  
anxiety before a big race.  
Hypnosis  
Relax… your eyelids are so very heavy… your muscles are becoming more and mor e r elaxed… your br eathing is  
becoming deeper and deeper… r elax… your eyes are closing… let go… r elax.  
Hypnotists use suggestions like these to begin hypnosis, a trance-like state of heightened suggestibility , deep  
relaxation, and intense focus. Once hypnotized, some people can be convinced that they are standing at the edge of  
the ocean, listening to the sound of the waves and feeling the ocean mist on their faces. Invited to eat a “delicious  
apple” that is actually an onion, the hypnotized person may relish the flavor. T old they are watching a very funny  
or sad movie, hypnotized people may begin to laugh or cry at their self-created visions.  
For centuries, entertainers and quacks have used (and abused) hypnosis, leading to many myths and  
misconceptions (T able5.5), but it has also long been employed as a clinical tool. Modern scientific research has  
removed much of the mystery surrounding hypnosis. A number of features characterize the hypnotic state (Huber  
et al., [5.96]; Spiegel, [5.183]; Y apko, [5.216]):  
•Narrowed, highly focused attention (ability to “tune out” competing sensory stimuli)  
•Increased use of imagination and hallucinations  
•A passive and receptive attitude  
•Decreased responsiveness to pain  
•Heightened suggestibility, or a greater willingness to respond to proposed changes in perception (“This onion  
is an apple.”)  
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T able5.5Hypnosis Myths and Facts  
Myth Fact  
Faking  
Hypnosis  
participants are  
“faking it” and  
playing along with  
the hypnotist.  
There are conflicting research positions about hypnosis. Although most participants are not  
consciously faking hypnosis, some researchers believe the effects result from a blend of  
conformity , relaxation, obedience, suggestion, and role playing. Other theorists believe that  
hypnotic effects result from a special ASC. A group of “unified” theorists suggest that hypnosis  
is a combination of both relaxation/role playing and a unique ASC.  
Forced hypnosis  
People can be  
hypnotized against  
their will, or  
hypnotically  
“brainwashed.”  
Hypnosis requires a willing, conscious choice to relinquish control of one's consciousness to  
someone else. The best potential subjects are those who are able to focus attention, are open to  
new experiences, and are capable of imaginative involvement or fantasy.  
Unethical  
behavior  
Hypnosis can  
make people  
behave immorally  
or take dangerous  
risks against their  
will.  
Hypnotized people retain awareness and control of their behavior, and they can refuse to  
comply with the hypnotist's suggestions.  
Superhuman  
strength  
Under hypnosis,  
people can  
perform acts of  
special  
superhuman  
strength.  
When nonhypnotized people are simply asked to try their hardest on tests of physical strength,  
they generally can do anything that a hypnotized person can do.  
Exceptional  
memory  
Under hypnosis,  
people can recall  
things they  
otherwise could  
not.  
Although the heightened relaxation and focus that hypnosis engenders improves recall for some  
information, it adds little (if anything) to regular memory . Hypnotized people are just more  
willing to guess. Because memory is normally filled with fabrication and distortion (Chapter 7),  
hypnosis generally increases the potential for error.  
Sources: Hilgard, [5.85], [5.86]; Huber et al., [5.96]; Lilienfeld et al., [5.128], [5.127]; Polito et al., [5.163].  
Try This Y ourself Hypnosis or Simple Trick?  
Y ou can re-create a favorite trick that stage hypnotists promote as evidence of superhuman strength under  
hypnosis. Simply arrange two chairs as shown in the picture. Y ou will see that hypnosis is not necessary—all that  
is needed is a highly motivated volunteer willing to stiffen his or her body .  
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T oday , even with available anesthetics, hypnosis is occasionally used in surgery and for the treatment of cancer,  
chronic pain, and severe burns (Adachi et al., [5.1]; Spiegel, [5.183]; T an et al., [5.189]). Hypnosis has found its  
best use in medical areas such as dentistry and childbirth, where patients have a high degree of anxiety, fear , and  
misinformation. For instance, some studies have found that women who use hypnosis in labor and childbirth  
experience lower levels of pain and a shorter duration of labor (Beebe, [5.14]; Madden et al., [5.133]). Because  
tension and anxiety strongly affect pain, any technique that helps the patient relax is medically useful. In  
psychotherapy , hypnosis can help patients relax and reduce anxiety (Alladin, [5.3]; Hope & Sugarman, [5.93];  
Iglesias & Iglesias, [5.97]).  
One Final Note  
Before closing this chapter, we'd like to take an unusual step for authors by offering you, our reader , a piece of  
caring, personal, and professional advice. A core problem while you're in any ASC is that you're less aware of  
external reality , which places you at high risk. This applies to both men and women. W e generally recognize these  
dangers while sleeping and dreaming, and we've developed standard ways to protect ourselves. For example, when  
we're driving on a long trip and start to feel sleepy, we stop for coffee, walk around, and/or rent a hotel room before  
allowing ourselves to fall asleep. Unfortunately , we often fail to acknowledge that similar dangers exist with other  
ASCs.  
Our simple advice is to follow this same “sleepy driver” logic and standards. If you decide to use drugs, meditate,  
undergo hypnosis, or engage in any other form of altered consciousness, research the effects and risks of your ASC  
and plan ahead for the best options for dealing with it—just like you set up a designated driver before drinking.  
T ake care and best wishes,  
Retrieval Practice 5.4 Meditation and Hypnosis  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Altered states of consciousness (ASCs) can be achieved in which of the following ways?  
a. During sleep and dreaming  
b. V ia chemical channels  
c. Through hypnosis and meditation  
d. In all these ways  
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2\.   
Briefly explain how meditation differs from hypnosis.  
3\.   
Research on the effects of meditation has found ________.  
a. an increase in blood pressure  
b. a reduction in stress  
c. a lack of evidence for changes in any physiological functions  
d. all of these options  
4\.   
________is an ASC characterized by deep relaxation and a trance-like state of heightened suggestibility and  
intense focus.  
a. Meditation  
b. Amphetamine psychosis  
c. Hypnosis  
d. Daydreaming  
5\.   
Which of the following is NOT associated with hypnosis?  
a. the use of imagination  
b. exceptional memory  
c. a passive, receptive attitude  
d. decreased pain  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 7 (Memory), you'll discover that our memories can be distorted and filled with inaccuracies. What  
factors involved in hypnosis could jeopardize the accuracy of events recalled under its influence?


	6. Chapter 6

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6.1 Classical Conditioning  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key terms and findings in classical conditioning.  
•Definelearning and classical conditioning.  
•DescribePavlov's and W atson's contributions to classical conditioning.  
•Discussthe six principles of classical conditioning.  
•Identifyhow classical conditioning is used in everyday life.  
Being ignorant is not so much a shame, as being unwilling to learn.  
—Benjamin Franklin (American Statesman, Scientist, Author)  
How did Millan's dogs learn to be less aggressive and out of control? How do dog owners learn to be more effective “pack leaders”? Much  
of what Millan does with these dogs and their owners is pulled right from the pages of this chapter on learning.  
W e normally think of learning in terms of classroom activities, such as math and reading, or motor skills, like riding a bike or playing the  
piano. But for psychologists, learning is an all-encompassing process allowing us to adapt to our ever-changing environment. For example,  
without the ability to learn, you would not be going to college. In fact, if people couldn't learn, there would be no colleges, no rocket ships  
to outer space, no computers, and virtually no human civilization. W e simply could not exist.  
Psychologists define learningas a r elatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes caused by experience. This relative  
permanence applies to bad habits, like texting while driving or procrastinating instead of studying, as well as to useful behaviors and  
emotions, such as Millan's rehabilitation of aggressive and misbehaving dogs, your training as a college student to pursue your chosen  
profession, and even your experience of falling in love.  
How do we change our bad habits? From previous experiences, we may have learned that bad habits can be very rewarding, which makes  
them difficult to change. The good news is that since learning is only “relatively” permanent, it can be changed. With new experiences,  
previous bad habits and problem behaviors can be replaced with new , more adaptive ones (Bull et al., [6.20]; Cheng et al., [6.23]; Gardner  
et al., [6.39]). Thus, to break the bad habit of texting while driving, you can force yourself to turn off your phone before starting the car (as  
we're reminded to do before a movie begins). Instead of procrastinating when it's time to study, you can practice the study skills sprinkled  
throughout this text.  
W e begin this chapter with a study of one of the earliest forms of learning, classical conditioning, made famous by Pavlov's salivating dogs.  
Beginnings of Classical Conditioning  
Why does your mouth water when you stare at a large slice of delicious cake or a juicy steak? The answer to this question was accidentally  
discovered in the laboratory of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). Pavlov's initial plan was to study the role of saliva in  
digestion by using a tube attached to dogs' salivary glands (Figure6.1).  
Figure 6.1 Pavlov's experimental setup  
During these experiments, one of Pavlov's students noticed that even before receiving the actual food, many dogs began salivating at the  
mere sight of the food, the food dish, the smell of the food, or even just the sight of the person who normally delivered the food! Pavlov's  
genius was in recognizing the importance of this “unscheduled” salivation. He realized that the dogs were not only responding on the basis  
of hunger (a biological need), but also as a result of experience or learning.  
Excited by this accidental discovery , Pavlov and his students conducted several experiments, including sounding a tone on a tuning fork just  
before food was placed in the dogs' mouths. After several pairings of the tone and food, dogs in the laboratory began to salivate on hearing  
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the tone alone.  
Pavlov and later researchers found that many things can become conditioned stimuli for salivation if they are paired with food—a bell, a  
buzzer, a light, and even the sight of a circle or triangle drawn on a card. This type of learning, called classical conditioning, develops  
through involuntary , passive, paired associations (McSweeney & Murphy , [6.59]). More specifically , a neutral stimulus (such as the tone on  
a tuning fork) comes to elicit a response after repeated pairings with a naturally occurring stimulus (like food).  
T o fully understand classical conditioning and how it applies to our everyday life, the first step is to recognize that conditioningis simply  
another word for learning. Next, we need to explain that classical conditioning is a three-step process— before, during, and after  
conditioning. This process is explained in detail below and visually summarized in Step-by-Step Diagram6.1.  
Step 1Before conditioning, the sound of the tone does NOT lead to salivation, which makes the tone a neutral stimulus (NS).  
Conversely , food naturally brings about salivation, which makes food an unlearned, unconditioned stimulus (US). The initial reflex of  
salivation also is unlearned, so it is called an unconditioned response (UR).  
Step 2During conditioning, the tuning fork is repeatedly sounded right before the presentation of the food (US).  
Step 3After conditioning, the tone alone will bring about salivation. At this point, we can say that the dog is classically conditioned.  
The previously neutral stimulus (NS) (the tone) has now become a learned, conditioned stimulus (CS)that produces a learned,  
conditioned response (CR)(the dog's salivation). (Note that the “R” in UR in Step 1 and the CR in this Step 3 refers to both “reflex” and  
“response.”)  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 6.1 The Beginnings and a Modern Application of Classical  
Conditioning  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Study Tip  
Use this figure to help you visualize and organize the three major stages of classical conditioning and their associated key terms. Also,  
remember conditioning is essentially the same as learning. In addition, when thinking of a US or UR, picture how a newborn baby, with  
little or no previous learning, would respond. The baby's innate, unlearned response to the US would be the UR.  
Pavlov's initial experiment used a metronome, a ticking instrument designed to mark exact time, and he later used a bell. However, his most  
scientifically researched and best-known method (depicted here) involved a tone from a tuning fork. As you can see, the basic process of  
classical conditioning is simple. Just as you've been classically conditioned to respond to your cell phone's tones, or possibly to just the  
sight of a pizza box, Pavlov's dogs learned to respond to a tuning fork's tone. Unfortunately , many students get confused by these technical  
terms. So here's a tip that might help: The actual stimuli (tone and food) remain the same—only their names change from neutral to  
conditioned or from unconditioned to conditioned. A similar name change happens for the response (salivation)—from unconditioned to  
conditioned.  
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In sum, the overall goal of Pavlov's classical conditioning was for the dog to learn to associate the tone with the unconditioned stimulus  
(food) and then to show the same response (salivation) to the tone as to the food. Using similar classical conditioning techniques, Millan's  
dogs learn to associate a specific sound (“tsch”) with an unwanted behavior. After training, the dog stops the behavior at the sound alone,  
without the need for additional correction.  
So what do Pavlov's and Millan's dogs have to do with your everyday life? Classical conditioning is a fundamental way that all animals,  
including humans, learn. Just as you may have learned to salivate at the sight of a pizza box (see again Step-by-Step Diagram 6.1),  
alcoholics often report cravings for a drink after a quick glance at a TV commercial showing alcoholic beverages. Also, laboratory  
experiments show that cigarette smokers can be trained to develop cravings for a cigarette after seeing a simple geometric design if it was  
previously paired with cigarette-related cues (Deweese et al., [6.30]). Classical conditioning also explains why so many of us turn to food  
when we're upset (see Figure6.2).  
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Figure 6.2 Classical conditioning and emotional eating  
(EE)As shown in this cartoon, and documented in a recent  
experiment (Bongers & Jansen, [6.14]), negative emotions  
can act as conditioned stimuli (CS) that lead to the  
conditioned response (CR) of hunger—particularly for socalled “comfort foods”—in this case, wine, cake, and  
cupcakes.  
Like the cravings for cigarettes or comfort foods, most of our human emotions, including the excitement of gambling, love for our family  
and significant others, and the almost universal fear of public speaking, are learned through the process of classical conditioning. How do  
we learn to be afraid of public speaking or of typically harmless things like mice and elevators? In a now-famous experiment, John Watson  
and Rosalie Rayner ([6.98]) demonstrated how a fear of rats could be classically conditioned.  
In this study , a healthy 1 1-month-old child, later known as “Little Albert,” was first allowed to play with a white laboratory rat. Like most  
other infants, Albert was curious and reached for the rat, showing no fear. Knowing that infants are naturally frightened by loud noises,  
W atson stood behind Albert and when he reached for the rat, W atson banged a steel bar with a hammer . The loud noise obviously  
frightened the child and made him cry . The rat was paired with the loud noise only seven times before Albert became classically  
conditioned and demonstrated fear of the rat even without the noise (Figure6.3). The rat had become a CS that brought about the CR  
(fear).  
Figure 6.3 Conditioning Little Albert's  
fearsW atson and Rayner's famous Little Albert  
study demonstrated how some fears can originate  
through conditioning. Using classical conditioning  
terms, we would say that the white rat (a neutral  
stimulus/NS) was initially paired with the loud  
noise (an unconditioned stimulus/US) to produce a  
conditioned stimulus (CS)—the white rat. Then,  
just the appearance of the white rat would elicit  
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Little Albert's conditioned emotional response  
(CER)—his fear of the rat. Note again that just as  
the CR and UR (salivation) were the same for  
Pavlov's dogs, the CER and UR (fear) are the same  
for Little Albert. The key difference is that through  
classical conditioning the infant learned to fear just  
the sight of the white rat.  
Although this deliberate experimental creation of what's now called a conditioned emotional response (CER)remains a classic in  
psychology , it has been heavily criticized and would never be allowed today (Antes, [6.6]; A vieli et al., [6.8]; Ethical Principles of  
Psychologists, [6.35]). The research procedures used by W atson and Rayner violated several current ethical guidelines for scientific  
research (Chapter 1). They not only deliberately created a serious fear in a child, but they also ended their experiment without extinguishing  
(removing) it. In addition, the researchers have been criticized because they did not measure Albert's fear objectively. Their subjective  
evaluation raises doubt about the degree of fear conditioned.  
Despite such criticisms, this study of Little Albert and follow-up research led to our current understanding that many of our likes, dislikes,  
prejudices, and fears are examples of conditioned emotional responses (CERs). For example, if your romantic partner always uses the same  
shampoo, simply the smell of that shampoo may soon elicit a positive response. In Chapter 15, you'll discover how W atson's research later  
led to powerful clinical tools for eliminating exaggerated and irrational fears of a specific object or situation, known as phobias(Cheng et  
al., [6.23]; Pear , [6.70]). For more examples of how classical conditioning impacts everyday life, see Concept Organizer6.1.  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 6.1 Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams.  
Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
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There is an animation on this topic available in the chapter resources.  
Principles of Classical Conditioning  
W e've just seen how a loud noise was used to condition Little Albert's fear of rats. But how would we explain common fears, such as being  
afraid of dentists or just the sound of a dentist's drill? As shown in Figure6.4, your fear of the drill, and maybe of dentistry in general, is  
not innate. Instead, it involves one or more of the six classical conditioning principles summarized in Concept Organizer6.2 and discussed  
in detail below .  
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Figure 6.4 Why are so many people  
afraid of dentists?Imagine being seated  
in a dental chair and hearing the sound  
of the dentist's drill. Even though the  
drill is nowhere near you, its sound  
immediately makes you feel anxious.  
Y our anxiety is obviously not innate.  
Little babies don't cringe at the sound of  
a dental drill, unless it's very loud. Y our  
fear is learned primarily through  
classical conditioning. The good news is  
that your dental fears and even serious  
dental phobias can be successfully  
treated (see Chapters 14 and 15).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 6.2 Six Principles and Applications of Classical Conditioning  
Process Description Example  
Acquisition  
Learning occurs (is acquired) when an organism involuntarily  
links a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus  
(US), which in turn elicits the conditioned response (CR) and/or  
conditioned emotional response (CER)  
Y ou learn to fear (CER) a dentist's drill (CS) because you  
associate it with the pain of your dental work (US).  
Generalization  
Conditioned response (CR) and/or a conditioned emotional  
response (CER) come to be involuntarily elicited not only by the  
conditioned stimulus (CS), but also by stimuli similar to the CS;  
the opposite of discrimination  
Y ou generalize your fear of the dentist's drill to your  
dentist's office and other dentists' offices.  
Discrimination  
Learned ability to distinguish (discriminate) between similar  
stimuli so as NOT to involuntarily respond to a new stimulus as  
if it were the previously conditioned stimulus (CS); the opposite  
of generalization  
Y ou are not afraid of your physician's office because  
you've learned to differentiate it from your dentist's office.  
Extinction  
Gradual diminishing of a conditioned response (CR) and/or a  
conditioned emotional response (CER) when the unconditioned  
stimulus (US) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus  
(CS)  
Y ou return several times to your dentist's office for routine  
checkups, with no dental drill; your fear of the dentist's  
office (CER) gradually diminishes.  
Spontaneous  
recovery  
Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response  
(CR) and/or conditioned emotional response (CER)  
While watching a movie depicting dental drilling, your  
previous fear (CER) suddenly returns.  
Higher-order  
conditioning  
A new conditioned stimulus (CS) is created by pairing it with a  
previously conditioned stimulus (CS)  
Y ou fear the sign outside your dentist's office, an originally  
neutral stimulus (NS). Why? It has become a conditioned  
stimulus (CS) associated with the previously conditioned  
stimulus (CS) of the dental drill.  
Try This Y ourself Identifying Principles of Classical Conditioning  
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________1.   
The mere smell of coffee helps wake me up in the morning.  
________2.   
The sound of ocean waves makes me cringe but hearing raindrops falling makes me smile.  
________3.   
I used to enjoy eating hamburgers, but after months on a vegetarian diet, I no longer want to eat meat.  
________4.   
Pictures of my ex-girlfriend on Facebook made me suddenly sad even though we broke up months ago.  
Note that adding additional examples from your personal life will further help you understand, appreciate, and master the principles of  
classical conditioning.  
1.Acquisition In the basic acquisitionphase, learning occurs (is acquired) when an organism involuntarily links a neutral stimulus (NS)  
with an unconditioned stimulus (US). This acquisition in turn elicits the conditioned response (CR). Pavlov's original (accidental)  
discovery of classical conditioning involved this mechanism, but he later went on to conduct numerous experiments beyond the  
acquisition phase.  
2.Generalization One of Pavlov's most interesting findings was that stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS) also can  
elicit the conditioned response (CR). For example, after first conditioning dogs to salivate to the sound of low-pitched tones, Pavlov  
later demonstrated that the dogs would also salivate in response to higher-pitched tones. Similarly , after W atson and Rayner's  
conditioning experiment, Little Albert learned to fear not only rats, but also a rabbit, a dog, and a bearded Santa Claus mask. This  
process, by which a conditioned response (CR) spreads (generalizes) and comes to be involuntarily elicited not only by the conditioned  
stimulus (CS) but also by stimuli similar to the CS, is called stimulus generalization(Davidson et al., [6.29]; El-Bar et al., [6.34]; Pear,  
[6.70]).  
3.Discrimination Just as Pavlov's dogs learned to generalize and respond to similar stimuli in a similar way, they also learned to  
discriminatebetween similar stimuli. For example, when he gave the dogs food following a high-pitched tone, but not when he used a  
low-pitched tone, he found that they learned the difference between the two tones and only salivated to the high-pitched one. Likewise,  
Little Albert learned to recognize differences between rats and other stimuli and presumably overcame his fear of these other stimuli.  
This learned ability to distinguish (discriminate) between similar stimuli so as NOT to involuntarily respond to a new stimulus as if it  
were the previously conditioned stimulus (CS) is known as stimulus discrimination.  
4.Extinction What do you think happened when Pavlov repeatedly sounded the tone without presenting food? The answer is that the  
dogs' salivation gradually declined, a process Pavlov called extinction. This term is defined as the gradual diminishing of a conditioned  
response (CR) when the unconditioned stimulus (US) is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (CS). Without continued  
association with the US, the CS loses its power to elicit the CR.  
5.Spontaneous recovery It's important to note that extinction is not complete unlearning. It does not fully “erase” the learned connection  
between the stimulus and the response (González et al., [6.42]; John & Pineño, [6.48]). Pavlov found that sometimes, after a CR had  
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apparently been extinguished, if he sounded the tone once again, the dogs would occasionally still salivate. This reappearance of a  
previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) is called spontaneous recovery(see the Try This Y ourself).  
6.Higher-order conditioning The phenomenon of higher-order conditioningtakes basic classical conditioning one step higher . Also  
known as “second-order conditioning,” this process refers to a situation in which a previously neutral stimulus (NS) (like a tone) is first  
made into a conditioned stimulus (CS) by pairing it with an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food). Next, the previously  
conditioned stimulus (CS) is used as a basis for creating a NEW CS (like a flashing light) that produces its own conditioned response  
(CR). In short, a new CS is created by pairing it with a previously created CS (Step-by-Step Diagram6.2).  
Try This Y ourself Spontaneous Recovery  
Have you ever felt renewed excitement at the sight of a former girlfriend or boyfriend, even though years have passed, you have a new  
partner, and extinction has occurred? This may be an example of spontaneous r ecovery. It also may help explain why people might  
misinterpret a sudden flare-up of feelings and be tempted to return to unhappy relationships. To make matters worse, when a conditioned  
stimulus is reintroduced after extinction, the conditioning occurs much faster the second time around—a phenomenon known as  
r econditioning.  
The good news is that those who have taken general psychology (or are currently reading this book) are (hopefully) far less likely to make  
this mistake. Looking at Figure6.5, you can see that even if you experience spontaneous recovery , your sudden peak of feelings for the old  
love partner will gradually return to their previously extinguished state. So don't overreact.  
Figure 6.5 Three key principles of classical conditioningDuring  
acquisition, the strength of the conditioned response (CR) rapidly  
increases and then levels off near its maximum. During extinction, the  
CR declines erratically until it is extinguished. After a “rest” period in  
which the organism is not exposed to the conditioned stimulus (CS),  
spontaneous recovery may occur, and the CS will once again elicit a  
(weakened) CR. Note that the CR once again gradually diminishes after  
the spontaneous recovery because the CS is alone and not paired with  
the US.  
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STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 6.2 The Power of Higher-Order Conditioning  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Children are not born salivating at the sight of McDonald's golden arches. So why do they beg adults to take them to “Mickey D's” after  
simply seeing an ad showing the golden arches? It's because of higher-order conditioning, which occurs when a new conditioned stimulus  
(CS) is created by pairing it with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS).  
Retrieval Practice 6.1 Classical Conditioning  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
________conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.  
a. Reflex  
b. Instinctive  
c. Classical  
d. Basic  
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2\.   
A young child learns to fear dogs after being bitten. In this situation, the conditioned emotional response (CER) is ________.  
a. the dog  
b. the bite  
c. fear  
d. none of these options  
3\.   
In John W atson's demonstration of classical conditioning with Little Albert, the unconditioned stimulus was ________.  
a. symptoms of fear  
b. a rat  
c. a bath towel  
d. a loud noise  
4\.   
Which of the six basic principles of classic conditioning best explain(s) this cartoon? ________.  
5\.   
Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the ________.  
a. conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned response  
b. unconditioned stimulus is withheld or removed  
c. conditioned response is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus  
d. unconditioned stimulus is ambiguous  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields  
of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction to Psychology and Its Research Methods), you learned about the importance of ethical guidelines in psychology.  
Because classical conditioning is reflexive and involuntary, this raises some ethical questions about its use in psychological treatment. For  
example, is it ethical to use classical conditioning to change unwanted behavior in children or brain-damaged adults? Would it make a  
difference to your response if the unwanted behavior was harmful to the person (such as self-biting or eating nonedible household items)?  
.  
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6.2 Operant Conditioning  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Discuss the key terms and findings in operant conditioning.  
•Defineoperant conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment.  
•DescribeThorndike's and Skinner's contributions to operant conditioning.  
•Explainhow reinforcement and punishment influence behavior.  
•Reviewthe five key principles in operant conditioning.  
•Identifyhow operant conditioning is used in everyday life.  
•Summarizethe major similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning.  
Classical and operant conditioning are both known as associative learning. As the name implies, they occur when an organism makes a  
connection, or association, between two events. During classical conditioning, an association is made between two stimuli, whereas in operant  
conditioning the association is made between a response and its consequences.  
As we've just seen, classical conditioning is based on what happens beforewe involuntarilyrespond: Something happens to us, and we learn a  
new response. In contrast, operant conditioningis based on what happens afterwe voluntarilyperform a behavior (McSweeney & Murphy , [6.59];  
Pear, [6.70]). W e do something and learn from the consequences. If a behavior is followed by reinforcement, it increases. If it's followed by  
punishment, it decreases (Figure6.6).  
Figure 6.6 Classical versus operant conditioningClassical conditioning is based on involuntary behavior,  
whereas operant conditioning is based on voluntary behavior.  
The key point to remember is that consequencesare the heart of operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, consequences are irrelevant—  
Pavlov's dogs still got to eat whether they salivated or not. But in operant conditioning, the organism voluntarily performs a behavior (an operant)  
that produces a consequence—either reinforcement or punishment—and the behavior then either increases or decreases. For example, Millan  
teaches pet owners to use operant conditioning to make their dogs earn all rewards by working for them.  
It's also very important to note that reinforcementis the process by which adding or taking away a stimulus following a response increases the  
likelihood that the response will be repeated. Punishment, in contrast, involves adding or taking away a stimulus following a response and thereby  
decreasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated. Before going on, check your understanding of operant conditioning with the  
following Myth Busters.  
Myth Busters True or False?  
1.The most logical and efficient way to maintain a desired behavior is to reward every response.  
2.Punishment is a very effective way to change long-term behavior .  
3.Negative reinforcement is another type of punishment.  
4.Prejudiced and superstitious people are born that way .  
5.Gamblers persist because they're on a partial schedule of reinforcement.  
Beginnings of Operant Conditioning  
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In the early 1900s, Edward Thorndike, a pioneer of operant conditioning, was the first to identify that the frequency of a behavior is controlled by  
its consequences (Thorndike, [6.91]). T oday this is known as Thorndike's law of effect, which further clarifies that any behavior followed by  
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped. Thorndike's  
findings were based on his study of cats in puzzle boxes (Figure6.7).  
Figure 6.7 Thorndike's law of effectIn his most  
famous experiment, Thorndike put a cat inside a  
specially built puzzle box. When the cat stepped on a  
pedal inside the box (at first by chance), the door  
opened, and the cat could get out and eat. Then,  
through trial and error , the cat learned what specific  
actions led to opening the door . W ith each additional  
success, the cat's actions became more purposeful, and  
it soon learned to open the door immediately  
(Thorndike, [6.90]).  
B. F . Skinner later extended Thorndike's law of effect to more complex behaviors. However, he carefully avoided Thorndike's use of terms like  
pleasantand unpleasantbecause they are subjective and not directly observable. Furthermore, Skinner argued that such words make unfounded  
assumptions about what an organism feels or wants and imply that behavior is due to conscious choice or intention. Skinner believed that to  
understand behavior, we should consider only external, observable stimuli and responses. W e must look outside the learner, not inside.  
Skinner also talked about reinforcement and punishment in terms of incr easingor decreasingthe likelihood of the response being repeated. If a  
toddler whines for candy , and the parent easily gives in, the child's whining will likely increase. But what if the parent initially refuses and yells at  
the child for whining, then gives in and gives the child a lollipop? The child might feel both happy to get the candy and sad because the parent is  
upset. Because we can't know the full extent of the child's internal, mixed feelings, it's cleaner (and more scientific) to limit our focus to  
observable behaviors and consequences. If the child's whining for lollipops increases, we can say that whining was reinforced. If it decreases, then  
it was punished.  
In keeping with his focus on external, observable stimuli and responses, Skinner emphasized that reinforcement and punishment should always be  
presented afterthe targeted behavior has occurred. This was because Skinner believed that the only way to know how we have influenced an  
organism's behavior is to check whether it increases or decreases. As he pointed out, we too often think we're reinforcing or punishing behavior  
when we're actually doing the opposite (see the following Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself The Challenge of Reinforcement  
A professor may think she is encouraging shy students to talk by repeatedly praising them each time they speak up in class. But what if you are  
one of those shy students and are embarrassed by this extra attention? If so, you may actually decrease the number of times you talk in class. Can  
you see why it's important to always remember that what is reinforcing or punishing for one person may not be so for another?  
Clarifying Reinforcement versus Punishment  
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Until now , we've only discussed reinforcement and punishment in general terms. But we also need to clarify exactly how they either increase or  
decrease behavior . T o begin, you need to understand that psychologists group reinforcers into two types, primary and secondary. A primary  
reinforceris any unlearned, innate stimulus (like food, water, or sex) that reinforces a response and thus increases the probability that it will recur .  
A secondary reinforceris any learned stimulus (like money , praise, or attention) that reinforces a response and thus increases the probability that it  
will recur. The key point is that “primary” is another word for unlearned, whereas “secondary” means learned. Note that the term primarymay  
seem to imply that primary reinforcers are the most critical or powerful kind. But as you'll see in the following Research Challenge, that's not  
always the case.  
Research Challenge Do Dogs Prefer Food or Praise?  
Did you know that dogs were the first domesticated species, or that they're currently the most loved household pets around the world, with the  
United States having the largest population of dogs, followed by Brazil and China (A Guide to W orldwide Pet Ownership, 2016)?  
Both humans and dogs have clearly benefited from their shared social bonding. But how do we explain why dogs have become so uniquely gifted  
at attending to and interpreting social cues from humans (e.g., Müller et al., [6.66])? Is it because humans generally provide dogs with food, a  
primary reinforcer? Or are dogs more interested in secondary r einforcers, like praise and human social interactions?  
Previous studies attempting to answer this question have found it difficult to separate food and social rewards during training or to measure their  
relative contributions to learning. However, recent advances in canine fMRI brain scans (Andics et al., [6.5]; Cook et al., [6.25]) have allowed  
scientists to examine the precise neural mechanisms involved in the bond between humans and dogs.  
For example, a recent examination of food versus social rewards (Cook et al., [6.26]) used scans of the brains of 15 dogs of various breeds. The  
researchers scanned the dogs' brains while their owners praised them and when they received food. The scans revealed that 13 of the 15 dogs  
showed equal or higher levels of activity in brain areas responsible for decision making and for signaling rewards when they were praised versus  
when they received food. T o confirm that the differences were solely driven by the value of social praise, the researchers then conducted a followup brain-scan study in which the praise was withheld on some trials, and the findings strongly correlated with those of the first study.  
T o see how the dogs responded outside the brain-imaging equipment, the researchers then used a Y -shaped maze and placed the dogs' owners on  
one side of the Y , with a bowl of treats on the other . As predicted, most of the canines preferred to go the direction of their owner versus the food.  
Interestingly , the dogs that showed a greater reaction to food in the scanner also chose food in the maze.  
Can you see why this research is so important? Millions of dogs are now providing invaluable services in a variety of occupations, including as  
guide dogs for the blind, as companions or therapy animals, and as herders, hunters, and trackers. They also serve in wars, in search-and-rescue  
operations, and in the detection of drugs and dangerous explosives. Given these multiple roles, the scientists in this study suggest that brain scans  
could better match certain dogs with specific service assignments. For example, therapy jobs requiring close human contact might be better for  
dogs with a higher preference for praise. In contrast, dogs with a lower need for praise might do better in more independent settings like herding  
and hunting, where the dogs traditionally receive a treat after successfully completing a task.  
What's the take-home message for most of us who only ask our dogs to serve as our loyal friends and playmates? The authors of this study  
concluded that “social reinforcement is at least as effective as food—and probably healthier too” (Cook et al., [6.26]).  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did the second follow-up study using the Y -shaped maze (Cook et al., [6.26]) use descriptive, correlational,  
and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
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•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to  
groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and  
public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better  
critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
It's also important to note that both primary and secondary reinforcers can produce positive reinforcementor negative reinforcement, depending  
on whether certain stimuli are added or taken away . Positive reinforcementis a process by which adding (or presenting) a stimulus following a  
response increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated. Negative reinforcementis a process by which taking away (or removing) a  
stimulus following a response increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated (T able6.1).  
T able6.1How Reinforcement Increases (or Strengthens) Behavior  
Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement  
Stimulus added (+) and behavior increases Stimulus taken away (−) and behavior increases  
Primary  
Reinforcers  
Unlearned, innate  
stimuli that reinforce  
and increase the  
probability of a  
response  
Y ou put money in the vending machine,  
and a snack comes out. The addition of the  
snack makes it more likely you will put  
money in the vending machine in the  
future.  
Y ou hug your baby and he smiles at you.  
The addition of his smile increases the  
likelihood that you will hug him again.  
Y ou switch from formal dress shoes to sneakers, and your  
foot pain goes away . The removal of your pain makes it  
more likely you will wear sneakers or other casual shoes in  
the future.  
Y our baby is crying, so you hug him, and he stops crying.  
The removal of crying increases the likelihood that you  
will hug him again when he cries.  
Secondary  
Reinforcers  
Learned stimuli that  
reinforce and  
increase the  
probability of a  
response  
Completing a quest in your video game  
increases your score and unlocks desirable  
game items. The addition of these items  
increases your video game playing  
behavior .  
Y ou study hard and receive a good grade  
on your psychology exam. The addition of  
the good grade makes it more likely that  
you'll study hard for future exams.  
Y ou mention all the homework you have to do, and your  
partner off ers to do the dinner dishes. The removal of this  
chore increases the likelihood that you will again mention  
your homework the next time it's your turn to do the  
dishes.  
Y ou're allowed to skip the final exam because you did so  
well on your unit exams. The removal of the final exam  
makes it more likely that you'll work hard to do well on  
unit exams in the future.  
W e readily admit that this terminology is very confusing because positive normally means something “good” and negative generally means  
something “bad.” But recall that Skinner cautioned us to avoid subjective terms like good and bad or pleasant and unpleasant because they are not  
external and directly observable. Instead, he used positiveand negative, as they're commonly used in mathematics and science. Y ou'll find this  
section much easier if you always remember that “positive” is simply adding something (+), and “negative” is taking something away (−).  
As with reinforcers, there are two kinds of punishers—primary and secondary. A primary punisheris any unlearned, innate stimulus, such as  
hunger or thirst, that punishes a response and thus decreases the probability that it will recur. In contrast, a secondary punisheris any learned  
stimulus, such as poor grades or a parking ticket, that punishes a response and thus decreases the probability that it will recur.  
Also, as with reinforcement, there are two kinds of punishment—positive and negative. Positive punishmentis a process by which adding (or  
presenting) a stimulus following a response decreases the likelihood that the response will be repeated. Negative punishmentis a process by which  
taking away (or removing) a stimulus following a response decreases the likelihood that the response will be repeated ( T able6.2).  
T able6.2How Punishment Decreases (or W eakens) Behavior  
Positive Punishment Negative Punishment  
Stimulus added (+) and behavior decreases (or  
weakens)  
Stimulus taken away (−) and behavior decreases (or  
weakens)  
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Positive Punishment Negative Punishment  
Stimulus added (+) and behavior decreases (or  
weakens)  
Stimulus taken away (−) and behavior decreases (or  
weakens)  
Primary Punishers  
Unlearned, innate  
stimuli that punish  
and decrease the  
probability of a  
response  
Y ou must run four extra laps at soccer practice  
because you were late. Adding the four extra laps  
makes it less likely that you'll be late for soccer  
practice in the future.  
Y ou forget to apply sunscreen, and as a  
consequence you later suffer a painful sunburn.  
The addition of the sunburn makes it less likely  
that you'll forget to apply sunscreen in the future.  
Y our instructor takes away a significant number of  
points from your paper because you turned it in late.  
The loss of points makes it less likely that you'll be  
late turning in your papers in the future.  
A hungry child is denied dessert because she refused  
to eat her dinner . The removal of the dessert option  
decreases the likelihood of the child refusing to eat  
her dinner in the future.  
Secondary  
Punishers  
Learned stimuli that  
punish and decrease  
the probability of a  
response  
Y ou text on your cell phone while driving and  
receive a ticket. The addition of the ticket for  
texting makes it less likely you will text while  
driving in the future.  
Y ou study hard for your psychology exam and still  
receive a low grade. The addition of the low grade  
after studying hard decreases the likelihood that  
you will study hard for future exams.  
A parent takes away a teen's cell phone following a  
poor report card. The removal of the phone makes it  
less likely that the teen will earn poor grades in the  
future.  
Y ou argue aggressively with your friend, and he or  
she goes home. The removal of your friend's  
presence decreases the likelihood that you'll argue  
aggressively in the future.  
Remember, negative reinforcement is NOT punishment. In fact, the two concepts are actually complete opposites. Reinforcement (both positive  
and negative) incr easesa behavior , whereas punishment (both positive and negative) decreasesa behavior . T o check your understanding of the  
principles of both reinforcement and punishment, see Figure6.8.  
Figure 6.8 Using the “Skinner box” for both reinforcement and punishment  
T o test his behavioral theories, Skinner created an operant conditioning chamber, popularly known as a “Skinner box.” Using this device,  
experimenters can teach subjects (like rats or pigeons) to perform specific behaviors, such as pressing a lever or pecking at a disk, in response to  
specific signals, such as a light or sound. In many experiments, the subject's responses also are mechanically recorded. Do you see how this highly  
controlled environment helps reduce potential experimental errors?  
Problems with Punishment  
As you've seen, punishment is a tricky concept that's difficult to use appropriately and effectively . W e often think we're punishing, yet the  
behaviors continue. Similarly , we too often mistakenly think we're reinforcing when we're actually punishing. The key thing to remember is that  
punishment, by definition, is a process that adds or takes away something, which causes a behavior to decrease. If the behavior does not decrease,  
it's NOT punishment!  
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In addition to these problems, to be effective punishment should always be clear, direct, immediate, and consistent. However , this is extremely  
hard to do. Police officers cannot stop all drivers each and every time they speed. And parents can't scold a child each time he or she curses.  
Don't worry . Psychologists recognize that there are situations when punishment is necessary , such as when a child takes something that doesn't  
belong to him or her . However , even in limited circumstances like this, it can still have at least seven key drawbacks ( T able6.3). After  
considering all these potential problems with punishment, you may be feeling a bit overwhelmed and wondering what to do instead. The most  
important reminder is that punishment teaches us what not to do, whereas reinforcement teaches us what to do.  
T able6.3Potential Side Effects of Punishment  
1.Undesirable emotional responses For the recipient, punishment often leads to fear, anxiety , frustration,  
anger , and hostility—obviously , not the responses most punishers intend. For example, modern parents  
generally disapprove of physical punishment. But how often have you seen a parent threaten to leave a  
child in the store if he or she doesn't hurry and catch up? The parent may see this as a simple way to  
obtain compliance, whereas the child may interpret it as a threat of abandonment and experience one or  
more of these unintended, undesirable emotional responses.  
2.Passive aggressiveness Most of us have learned from experience that retaliatory aggression toward a  
punisher (especially one who is bigger and/or more powerful) is often followed by more punishment. So  
instead, we may resort to subtle techniques, called passive aggressiveness, in which we deliberately show  
up late, “forget” to do an assigned chore, or complete the chore in a half-hearted way .  
3.L ying and avoidance behavior No one likes to be punished, so we naturally try to avoid the punishment  
by lying or by avoiding the punisher . Do you see how this is an example of negative reinforcement,  
which will actually increase the behavior? If lying gets you out of trouble, you'll be more likely to do it  
again in the future. Similarly , if every time you come home, your parent or spouse starts yelling at you,  
you'll learn to delay coming home—or you'll find another place to go.  
4.Inappropriate modeling Have you ever seen a parent spank or hit his or her child for hitting another  
child? Ironically , the punishing parent may unintentionally serve as a “model” for the same behavior he  
or she is attempting to stop.  
5.T emporary suppression versus elimination Punishment generally suppresses the behavior only  
temporarily , while the punisher is nearby , and the effects of the punishment tend to fade with time. For  
example, a recent study found that after experiencing a severe collision, automobile drivers initially  
decreased their risky driving, but only temporarily (O'Brien et al., [6.67]). In addition, the recipient only  
learns what NOT to do, but not necessarily what he or she SHOULD do.  
6.Learned helplessness Early researchers theorized that nonhuman animals, when faced with  
uncontrollable aversive events, learned that nothing they did mattered, which, in turn, undermined their  
attempts to escape. However, recent studies suggest that this passivity is not learned, but is instead a  
biologically based response that inhibits escape (Maier & Seligman, [6.56]). Regardless of whether the  
helplessness response was learned or unlearned, can you see how repeated, inescapable aversive  
punishments might explain, in part, why some people stay in abusive relationships? Or why some  
students who've experienced many failures in academic settings might passively accept punishingly low  
grades and/or engage in self-defeating behaviors, such as procrastinating and making minimal effort?  
7.Inappropriate rewards and escalation Because punishment often produces a decrease in the undesired  
behavior, at least for the moment, the punisher is in effect rewarded for applying punishment. T o make  
matters worse, a vicious cycle may be established in which both the punisher and the recipient are  
reinforced—the punisher for punishing, and the recipient for being fearful and submissive. This side  
effect may partially explain the escalation of violence in domestic abuse and bullying.  
Is placing a child in “time out” a  
form of positive or negative  
punishment?  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
Using one or more of these seven side effects of punishment, answer the following questions:  
1\.   
Why do you think roommates, children, and spouses refuse to load the dishwasher despite repeated nagging?  
2\.   
Why do drivers quickly slow down when they see a police car following behind and then quickly resume speeding once the police officer is out of  
sight?  
Sources:Besemer et al., [6.13]; Lapré & Marsee, [6.51]; Maier & Seligman, [6.56]; McSweeney & Murphy, [6.59]; Miller et al., [6.64]; Seligman  
& Maier, [6.83]; W alker & Gresham, [6.97].  
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Principles of Operant Conditioning  
Earlier, we discussed the six principles of classical conditioning. In this section, we explore five principles of operant conditioning: acquisition,  
generalization, discrimination, extinction,and shaping(Figure6.9). Note that the first four of these principles are very similar to those in classical  
conditioning, except that in classical conditioning the response is involuntary , whereas it is voluntary in operant conditioning.  
1.Acquisition Recall that acquisition in classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs (is acquired) when an organism involuntarily links  
a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). This acquisition then elicits the conditioned response (CR) and/or conditioned  
emotional response (CER). However, during acquisitionin operant conditioning, learning occurs (is acquired) when an organism voluntarily  
links a response with a consequence, such as a reward.  
2.Generalization Generalization in classical conditioning occurs when the CR is involuntarily elicited not only by the CS, but also by stimuli  
similar to the CS. In comparison, generalizationin operant conditioning refers to voluntarily responding to a new stimulus as if it is the  
original, previously conditioned stimulus (CS). A pigeon that's been trained to peck at a green light might also peck at a red light. And a young  
child who is rewarded for calling her father “Daddy” might generalize and call all men “Daddy.” [Study tip: Remember that in classical  
conditioning the CR is involuntarily elicited, whereas in operant conditioning the CR is a voluntary response.]  
3.Discrimination Discrimination in classical conditioning refers to the learned ability to distinguish (discriminate) between stimuli that differ  
from the CS. In operant conditioning, discriminationrefers to the learned ability to distinguish (discriminate) between similar stimuli based on  
whether responses to the stimuli are reinforced or punished and then to voluntarily respond accordingly. A pigeon might be punished after  
pecking at a green light, and not after pecking at a red light. As a result, it would quickly learn to peck only at red and to stop pecking at green.  
Similarly , a child who is only reinforced for calling her father “Daddy” will quickly learn to stop calling all men “Daddy .”  
4.Extinction Recall that extinction in classical conditioning involves a gradual diminishing of the conditioned response (CR) when the  
unconditioned stimulus (US) is withheld or removed. Similarly , extinctionin operant conditioning refers to a gradual diminishing of a  
response when it is no longer reinforced. Skinner quickly taught pigeons to peck at a certain stimulus using food as a reward (Bouton & T odd,  
[6.16]; van den Akker et al., [6.94]). However , once the reinforcement stopped, the pigeons quickly stopped pecking. How does this apply to  
human behavior? If a local restaurant stops serving our favorite dishes, we'll soon stop going to that restaurant. Similarly, if we routinely  
ignore compliments or kisses from a long-term partner , he or she may soon stop giving them.  
5.Shaping How do seals in zoos and amusement parks learn how to balance beach balls on their noses or how to clap their flippers together on  
command from the trainers? For new and complex behaviors such as these, which aren't likely to occur naturally, shapingis the key . Skinner  
believed that shaping, or r ewar ding successive approximations, explains a variety of abilities that each of us possesses, from eating with a fork  
to playing a musical instrument. Parents, athletic coaches, teachers, therapists, and animal trainers all use shaping techniques (Diefenbach et  
al., [6.31]; Pear , [6.70]). See Figure6.10.  
Figure 6.9 Major principles of operant conditioning  
Figure 6.10 Shaping in actionHow does a dog learn to ride on  
a paddle board? This pet owner undoubtedly used common  
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shaping techniques. He probably began by standing on the  
paddle board holding the dog in his arms in shallow water or  
on dry land. Then he likely placed the dog on the board and  
used praise or rewards (small doggy treats) when the dog  
remained there. Next, the owner probably gradually moved the  
paddle board in small steps into increasingly deeper water,  
while calmly reassuring, praising, and/or rewarding the dog for  
staying on the board.  
Now that we've discussed how we learn complex behaviors through shaping, you may want to know how to maintain them. This issue involves  
schedules of reinforcement—specific patterns of reinforcement that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.  
Schedules of Reinforcement  
When Skinner was training his animals, he found that learning was most rapid if the correct response was reinforced every time it occurred—a  
pattern called continuous reinforcement. Although most effective during the initial training/learning phase, continuous reinforcement  
unfortunately also leads to rapid extinction—the gradual diminishing of a response when it is no longer reinforced. Furthermore, in the real world,  
continuous reinforcement is generally not practical or economical. When teaching our children, we can't say, “Good job! Y ou brushed your teeth!”  
every morning for the rest of their lives. As an employer, we can't give a bonus for every task our employees accomplish. For pigeons in the wild,  
and people in the real world, behaviors are almost always reinforced only occasionally and unpredictably—a pattern called partial (or intermittent)  
reinforcement.  
Given the impracticality, and near impossibility , of continuous reinforcement, let's focus on the good news regarding partially reinforced behaviors  
—they're highly resistant to extinction. Skinner found that pigeons that were reinforced on a continuous schedule would continue pecking  
approximately a hundred times after food was removed completely—indicating extinction. In contrast, pigeons reinforced on a partial schedule  
continued to peck thousands of times (Skinner, [6.85]). Moving from pigeons to people, consider the human behavior of persistent gambling, as  
described in Figure6.11.  
Figure 6.11 Gambling—a partial schedule of  
reinforcementGambling should be a punishing situation, and  
easily extinguished, because gamblers generally lose far more  
than they win. However , the fact that they occasionally , and  
unpredictably , win keeps them “hanging in there.” In addition  
to this dangerous partial scheduleof r einforcement, which is  
highly resistant to extinction, some research demonstrates that  
pathological gamblers are less able to make an association  
between negative events, such as losing lots of money , and the  
stimuli that cause those events, such as gambling (Stange et al.,  
[6.88]; T empleton et al., [6.89]). As a critical thinker, do you  
recognize how this inability to see connections between losses  
and gambling might also be an example of the confirmation  
bias (discussed in Chapters 1 and 8)? Most gamblers are far  
more likely to note and remember their wins—and ignore their  
losses.  
When using partial reinforcement, it's also critical to note that some partial schedules of reinforcement are better suited for maintaining or  
changing behavior than others (Craig et al., [6.28]; Kono, [6.50]; Thrailkill & Bouton, [6.92]). There are four schedules—fixed ratio (FR),  
variable ratio (VR), fixed interval (FI), and variable interval (VI). T able6.4 defines these terms, compares their respective response rates, and  
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provides examples. Note that in general, ratio schedules consistently elicit higher response rates than interval schedules because the intervals are  
more predictable. In addition, variable schedules generally produce higher response rates than fixed schedules because schedules are more  
predictable. Therefore, do you see why variable ratios (VRs) elicit the highest response rate, whereas fixed intervals (FIs) produce the lowest?  
T able6.4Four Schedules of Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement  
Definitions Response Rates Examples  
Ratio Schedules (Response Based)  
Fixed  
ratio  
(FR)  
Reinforcement occurs  
after a fixed,  
predetermined number  
of responses  
Relatively high rate of response, but a  
brief drop-off just after reinforcement  
Y ou receive a free flight from your frequent flyer  
program after accumulating a given number of  
flight miles.  
V ariable  
ratio  
(VR)  
Reinforcement occurs  
after a varying number  
of responses  
Highest response rate, no pause after  
reinforcement; variability also makes  
it resistant to extinction  
Slot machines are designed to pay out after an  
average number of responses (maybe every 10  
times), but any one machine may pay out on the  
first response, then the seventh, then the  
twentieth.  
Interval Schedules (Time Based)  
Fixed  
interval  
(FI)  
Reinforcement occurs  
after the first response,  
following a fixed period  
(interval) of time  
Lowest response rate; responses  
increase near the time for the next  
reinforcement but drop off after  
reinforcement and during intervals  
Y ou receive a monthly paycheck.  
Health inspectors visit a restaurant every 6  
months.  
V ariable  
interval  
(VI)  
Reinforcement occurs  
after the first response,  
following varying  
periods (intervals) of  
time  
Relatively low , but steady , response  
rates because respondents cannot  
predict when reward will come;  
variability also makes it resistant to  
extinction  
Y our professor gives pop quizzes at random times  
throughout the course.  
A dog receives a treat if he stays in a sit position  
for a variable, unpredictable length of time.  
Study Tip  
Remember that intervals aretime based, whereas ratios areresponse based.  
How do we know which schedule to choose? The type of partial schedule selected depends on the type of behavior being studied and on the speed  
of learning desired (Lubar, [6.55]; Pear , [6.70]; Snider et al., [6.87]). For example, suppose you want to teach your dog to sit. First, you could  
reinforce your dog with a cookie every time he sits (continuous reinforcement). T o make his training more resistant to extinction, you then could  
switch to a partial reinforcement schedule. Using the fixed ratio schedule, you would offer a cookie only after your dog sits a certain number of  
times. As you can see in Figure6.12, a fixed ratio leads to the highest overall response rate. But each of the four types of partial schedules has  
different advantages and disadvantages (see again T able 6.4).  
Figure 6.12 Which schedule is best?Each of the different  
schedules of reinforcement produces its own unique pattern  
of response. The best schedule depends on the specific task  
—see Table 6.4. (The “stars” on the lines represent the  
delivery of a reinforcer .) (Based on Skinner , [6.86].)  
Before going on, it's important to recognize that operant conditioning principles are commonly used by teachers, animal trainers (like our famous  
figure Cesar Millan), and therapists to bring about desired changes in behavior (Chapter 15). Figure6.13 offers even more examples of how  
operant conditioning applies to your everyday life. In addition, the following Psychology and Y our Professional Success demonstrates how these  
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same principles can be used to improve your success in the business world. And, finally , if you're feeling a bit overwhelmed with all the terms and  
concepts for both classical and operant conditioning, carefully study the summary provided in T able6.5.  
Figure 6.13 Operant conditioning in everyday lifeReinforcement and punishment shape behavior in many aspects of our lives.  
T able6.5Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning  
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning  
Example Cringing at the sound of a dentist's drill A baby cries and you pick her up  
Pioneers  
Ivan Pavlov  
John B. W atson  
Edward Thorndike  
B. F . Skinner  
Key T erms  
Neutral stimulus (NS)  
Unconditioned stimulus (US)  
Conditioned stimulus (CS)  
Unconditioned response (UR)  
Conditioned response (CR)  
Conditioned emotional response (CER)  
Reinforcers and punishers (primary/secondary)  
Reinforcement (positive/negative)  
Punishment (positive/negative)  
Superstition  
Shaping  
Schedules of reinforcement (continuous/partial)  
Key Principles and Major Similarities  
Acquisition  
Generalization  
Discrimination  
Extinction  
Spontaneous recovery  
Higher-order conditioning  
Acquisition  
Generalization  
Discrimination  
Extinction  
Shaping  
Major Differences  
Passive/involuntary response  
NS presented beforethe US  
Active/voluntary response  
Consequences presented afterthe behavior  
Psychology and Y our Professional Success Why Can't W e Get Anything Done Around Here?  
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Imagine yourself as an employee who's just been promoted to manager for a big company (see photo). Unfortunately , this company is in serious  
trouble and is currently losing business primarily due to low productivity and employee-related problems. Y our bonuses (and job) depend on your  
ability to motivate these employees and increase their production. How could you use reinforcement and punishment to meet your goals?  
1.Provide clear directions and feedback. Have you noticed how frustrating it is when a boss asks you to do something but doesn't give you  
clear directions or helpful feedback on your work? When using either reinforcement or punishment, be sure to provide specific, frequent, and  
clear directions and feedback to the employee whose behavior you want to encourage or change. When using punishment, it is particularly  
important to clearly explain and perhaps demonstrate the desired response. Remember that punishment is merely an indication that the current  
response is undesirable, and employees, like all of us, need to know precisely what to do, as well as what NOT to do.  
2.Be consistent. T o be effective, both reinforcement and punishment must be consistent. As a student, have you noticed how some of your  
classmates get out of difficult assignments or gain extra time or make-up arrangements because they're constantly complaining or begging?  
This same pattern is often seen in business situations. Recalling what you've learned in this chapter, can you see how some business managers  
(and college instructors) may begin with refusals but then eventually give in when the complaining persists?  
Do you see how this creates a vicious cycle? First, the employee is being positively reinforcedfor complaining and begging, which almost  
guarantees that these inappropriate behaviors are likely to increase. T o make matters worse, the manager's inconsistency (saying “no” and then  
giving in) places the employee's bad behavior on a partial schedule of reinforcement—and thus makes it highly resistant to extinction. Like a  
toddler screaming for a lollipop or a gambler continuing to play despite the odds, the employee will continue his or her inappropriate behavior  
in hopes of the occasional payoff. Because effective punishment requires constant surveillance and consistent responses, it's almost impossible  
to be a “perfect punisher .” It's best (and easiest) to use consistent reinforcement for good behavior and extinction for bad behavior .  
3.Use appropriate timing. Reinforcers and punishers should be presented as close in time to the response as possible. If you're trying to  
increase production, don't tell your staff that you'll have a large party at the end of the year if they reach a significant goal. Instead, reward  
them with immediate compliments and small bonuses. The same is true for punishment. When you notice inappropriate behaviors, such as  
employees surfing the Internet rather than working, you should immediately confront them and remind them to get back to work. Do you see  
how waiting until a performance review or even the end of the day to confront workers is obviously inappropriate and less effective? The  
delayed punishment is no longer associated with the inappropriate response.  
4.Follow correct order of presentation. As a teenager, did you ever ask for a few extra dollars as an advance on your allowance or promise to  
mow the grass before the end of the week? Did you later conveniently “forget” the advance or your promise? As a manager, you can  
understand why providing reinforcement before the desired response occurs generally leads to increased requests for advances and broken  
promises. At the same time, imagine how an employee might feel if he or she asked to telecommute (or work from home) but you immediately  
denied the request because you believe all employees “slough off if they're not being watched.” Here, refusing the request before the negligent  
behavior occurs typically leads to frustration, resentment, and lowered productivity. Both reinforcement and punishment should come afterthe  
behavior, never before.  
5.Combine key learning principles. In sum, the overall best management strategy in business (as in most areas of your life) is to combine the  
major principles: reinforce appropriate behavior, extinguish inappropriate behavior , and save punishment for the most extreme cases (such as  
harassment, bullying, or stealing). Interestingly , Cesar Millan suggests that to be a good “pack leader,” dog owners must use these very same  
principles—providing clear and immediate direction, consistency , and so on. But he also insists that the owners maintain a calm, assertive  
demeanor, which is also good advice for managers, parents, and others who want to become more effective leaders.  
Retrieval Practice 6.2 Operant Conditioning  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix  
B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
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1\.   
Learning in which voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences is called ________.  
2\.   
An employer who gives employees a cash bonus after they've done a good job is an example of ________.  
a. positive reinforcement  
b. incremental conditioning  
c. classical conditioning  
d. bribery  
3\.   
________reinforcers normally satisfy an unlearned biological need.  
a. Positive  
b. Negative  
c. Primary  
d. None of these  
4\.   
The overall best method for changing behavior is to ________.  
a. reinforce appropriate behavior  
b. extinguish inappropriate behavior  
c. save punishment for extreme cases  
d. use all of these options  
5\.   
Gamblers become addicted partially because of ________.  
a. previously generalized response discrimination  
b. previously extinguished response recovery  
c. partial (intermittent) reinforcement  
d. behavior being learned and not conditioned  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
The connection between operant conditioning and motivation (Chapter 12, Motivation and Emotion) seems an easy one to make: you can motivate  
someone to change behavior by rewards or punishments. But is it really that easy? Describe a time when reinforcement or punishment did not  
work for you. How was your motivation to do (or not do) something a factor in the ineffectiveness of operant conditioning?  
.  
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6.3 Cognitive–Social Learning  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key terms and findings in the cognitive—social theory of learning.  
•Describeinsight learning, cognitive maps, and latent learning.  
•Discussobservational learning and Bandura's four key factors.  
He who learns but does not think is lost! He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger.  
—Confucious (Chinese Philosopher, T eacher , Politician)  
So far, we have examined learning processes that involve associations between a stimulus and an observable behavior—the key to  
both classical and operant conditioning. Although some behaviorists believe that almost all learning can be explained in such  
stimulus–response terms, cognitive psychologists disagree. Cognitive-social learning theory(also called cognitive–behavioral  
theory) incorporates the general concepts of conditioning. But rather than relying on a simple S–R (stimulus and response) model,  
this theory emphasizes the interpretation or thinking that occurs within the organism: S–O–R (stimulus–organism–response).  
According to this view , humans have attitudes, beliefs, expectations, motivations, and emotions that affect learning. Furthermore,  
humans and many nonhuman animals also are social creatures that are capable of learning new behaviors through the observation  
and imitation of others. For example, Cesar Millan suggests that dogs naturally imitate their owner's emotions and behaviors. He  
reminds them, “if you feel anxious, the dog becomes anxious with you.” And if your dog is misbehaving, ask yourself, “What am  
I doing wrong?” In this section, we first look at insight and latent learning, followed by observational learning.  
Insight Learning and Latent Learning  
Early behaviorists likened the mind to a “black box” whose workings could not be observed directly. German psychologist  
W olfgang Köhler (1887–1967) wanted to look inside the box. He believed that there was more to learning—especially learning to  
solve a complex problem—than responding to stimuli in a trial-and-error fashion.  
In one of a series of experiments, Köhler placed a piece of fruit and a long stick just outside the reach of one of his brightest  
chimpanzees, named Sultan. Köhler also placed a short stick inside Sultan's cage. Sultan quickly picked up the stick and tried to  
rake the fruit into his reach outside the cage, but the stick was too short. Köhler noticed that the chimp did not solve the problem  
in a random trial-and-error fashion. Instead, he seemed to sit and think about the situation for a while. Then, in a flash of insight,  
Sultan picked up the shorter stick and used it to drag the longer stick within his reach. He then used the longer stick to rake in the  
fruit (Köhler , [6.49]). Köhler called this insight learningbecause some internal mental event, which he could only describe as  
insight, or an “aha” experience, went on between the presentation of the fruit and the use of the two sticks to retrieve it. See  
Figure6.14 for another example of how Sultan solved a similar “out-of-reach banana” problem.  
Figure 6.14 Cognitive–  
social learningIn a  
second Köhler  
experiment,  
chimpanzees were  
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placed in a room with  
several scattered  
boxes, none of which  
was high enough to  
enable them to reach  
the banana. They  
initially ran around and  
unproductively jumped  
for the banana. Then,  
all of a sudden, Sultan  
saw the solution—he  
stacked the boxes and  
used them to climb up  
and grab the banana!  
(Also, note how the  
chimp in the  
background is engaged  
in observational  
learning, our next  
topic.)  
Like Köhler, Edward C. T olman (1898–1956) believed that previous researchers underestimated human and nonhuman animals'  
cognitive processes and cognitive learning. He noted that, when allowed to roam aimlessly in an experimental maze with no food  
reward at the end, rats seemed to develop a cognitive map, or mental representation of the maze.  
T o further test the idea of cognitive learning, T olman allowed one group of rats to aimlessly explore a maze, with no  
reinforcement. A second group was reinforced with food whenever they reached the end of the maze. The third group was not  
rewarded during the first 10 days of the trial, but starting on day 11, they found food at the end of the maze.  
As expected from simple operant conditioning, the first and third groups were slow to learn the maze, whereas the second group,  
which had reinforcement, showed fast, steady improvement. However, when the third group started receiving reinforcement (on  
the 1 1th day), their learning quickly caught up to the group that had been reinforced every time (T olman & Honzik, [6.93]). This  
showed that the nonreinforced rats had been thinking and building cognitive maps of the area during their aimless wandering and  
that their latent learning, or implicit learning, only showed up when there was a reason to display it (the food reward).  
Cognitive maps and latent learning are not limited to rats. For example, a chipmunk will pay little attention to a new log in its  
territory (after initially checking it for food). When a predator comes along, however, the chipmunk heads directly for and hides  
beneath the log. Recent experiments provide additional clear evidence of latent learning and the existence of internal cognitive  
maps in both human and nonhuman animals (Brunyé et al., [6.19]; Geronazzo et al., [6.40]; Leising et al., [6.52]). See Figure  
6.15. Do you remember your first visit to your college campus? Y ou probably just wandered around checking out the various  
buildings, without realizing you were engaging in “latent learning” and building your own “cognitive maps.” This exploration  
undoubtedly came in handy when you later needed to find your classes and the cafeteria!  
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Figure 6.15 Cognitive maps in humansPeople who live or  
work near these beautiful red rocks in Nevada undoubtedly  
know what lies beyond the last turn in this highway . That's  
because they have developed a detailed cognitive map of the  
area. Can you think of examples of similar cognitive maps  
from your own life?  
Observational Learning  
In addition to classical and operant conditioning and cognitive processes (such as insight learning and latent learning), we learn  
many things through observational learning, which is also called imitationor modeling. From birth to death, observational  
learning is essential to our biological, psychological, and social survival (the biopsychosocial model). W atching others helps us  
avoid dangerous stimuli in our environment, teaches us how to think and feel, and shows us how to act and interact socially  
(Askew et al., [6.7]; Pauen & Hoehl, [6.69]; Pear , [6.70]).  
For example, toddlers typically go through a picky eating phase, but research shows that toddlers who watched their parents  
eating a novel food were far more likely to try that food than toddlers who were only repeatedly prompted by parents (Edelson et  
al., [6.33]). Unfortunately , observational learning also may lead to negative outcomes. One study found that even some very  
young toddlers showed a clear preference for looking at average-sized versus obese figures (Ruffman et al., [6.80]). The toddlers'  
responses were correlated with their mothers' anti-fat attitudes and were not related to the parents' body mass index (BMI, a  
measure of obesity) or education or to the children's television viewing time. The researchers concluded that the toddlers'  
prejudices most likely resulted from modeling and observational learning. A similar example of bad modeling may come from  
research on math-anxious parents who help with their children's math homework. This study found that the children of these  
parents actually learn less math over a school year and are more likely to develop math anxiety themselves (Maloney et al.,  
[6.58]).  
Interestingly , the work of our introductory famous figure, Cesar Millan, provides a contrary , positive example for modeling.  
When faced with extremely out-of-control dogs that do not respond to his initial training, Millan takes them to his Dog  
Psychology Center. There, they seem to quickly learn the desired behaviors by watching and imitating the behaviors of other,  
well-trained dogs.  
Much of our knowledge about the power of observational learning initially came from the work of Albert Bandura and his  
colleagues (Bandura, [6.9]; Bandura et al., [6.10]; Bandura & W alters, [6.11]). W anting to know whether children learn to be  
aggressive by watching others be aggressive, Bandura and his colleagues set up several experiments in which children watched a  
live or televised adult model punch, throw , and hit a large inflated Bobo doll (Figure6.16 top).  
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Figure 6.16 Bandura's Bobo  
doll study  
Later, the children were allowed to play in the same room with the same Bobo doll. As Bandura hypothesized, children who had  
watched the live or televised aggressive model were much more aggressive with the Bobo doll than children who had not seen the  
modeled aggression (Figure6.16 bottom). In other words, “Monkey see, monkey do” (see cartoon).  
Thanks to the Bobo doll studies and his other experiments, Bandura established that observational learning requires at least four  
separate processes: attention, r etention, r epr oduction, and motivation(Figure6.17).  
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Figure 6.17 Bandura's four key factors in observational learningA child who wants to become a premier ballerina—or you, if  
you want to learn to paint, ski, or play a musical instrument—will need to incorporate these four factors to maximize learning.  
Cognitive–Social Learning and Everyday Life  
W e use cognitive–social learning in many ways in our everyday lives (as humorously depicted in the cartoon on the left).  
However, one of the most powerful examples is frequently overlooked—media influences. Experimental and correlational  
research clearly show that when we watch television or movies, read books or magazines, or visit websites that portray people of  
color , women, or others in demeaning and stereotypical roles, we often learn to expect these behaviors and to accept them as  
“natural.” Exposure of this kind initiates and reinforces the learning of prejudice (Dill & Thill, [6.32]; Scharrer &  
Ramasubramanian, [6.82]; van der Pligt & Vliek, [6.95]).  
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In addition to prejudice and stereotypes, watching popular media also teaches us what to eat, what toys to buy, what homes and  
clothes are most fashionable, and what constitutes “the good life.” When a TV commercial shows children enjoying a particular  
cereal and beaming at their mom in gratitude (and mom is smiling back), both children and parents in the audience are  
participating in a form of observational learning. They learn that they, too, will be rewarded for buying the advertised brand (with  
happy children). Sadly , as shown in the following Research Challenge, the media may strongly influence our ideal body image.  
Research Challenge Does the Media Impact Our Body Size Preferences?  
How do media images of women's bodies influence preferences for particular body shapes and sizes? To examine this question,  
researchers compared preferences for different body sizes in men and women living in three distinct parts of Nicaragua  
(Boothroyd et al., [6.15]). One group was living in an urban area, with regular access to most forms of media. The second group  
resided in a village with only television access. The third group was living in a remote area with little access to electricity and  
hence low rates of any media viewing. Participants in each of the three areas were shown images of women's bodies, like those on  
the right, that varied on degree of thinness and were then asked to rate their attractiveness on a scale of 1 to 5.  
Can you predict their findings? As the researchers hypothesized, people living in the village with little access to media rated the  
thinner female bodies as the least attractive, whereas those living in the urban area with more media exposure rated the thinner  
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female bodies as most attractive. Moreover, rates of dieting by women were in line with the participants' degree of exposure to  
media. Those living in urban areas with regular media access reported the strongest desire to lose weight, whereas women living  
in the area without regular exposure to television showed the least. These findings suggest that the thin ideal so commonly shown  
in the media may change both men's and women's beliefs about what is considered attractive in a given culture.  
Why do you think the researchers limited their study to Nicaragua? Can you see how it would be difficult to find areas in more  
developed nations that are relatively free of media influences? How might this type of maladaptive observational learning  
contribute to body dissatisfaction, excessive dieting, and eating disorders, such as bulimia and anorexia (Chapter 12)?  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Boothroyd et al., [6.15]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental  
research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly  
assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most  
textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those  
provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
At risk of leaving you with the impression that observational learning is primarily negative, we'd like to end on a more positive  
note. A cross-cultural study tested levels of empathy and helpfulness in thousands of adolescents and young adults in seven  
different countries (Australia, China, Croatia, Germany , Japan, Romania, and the United States). And, happily , the researchers  
found that greater exposure to prosocial media—meaning video games, movies, or TV programs showing helpful, caring, and  
cooperative behaviors—led to higher levels of helping behavior among the viewers (Prot et al., [6.75]). In conclusion, the  
following Psychology and Y our Personal Success provides a quick, helpful way to review the three major forms of learning while  
also improving your student success skills.  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success Can Learning Principles Help Y ou Succeed in  
College?  
Having studied the principles of classical, operant, and cognitive–social learning, see if you can apply this new information to  
your overall educational goals.  
1.Classical conditioning If you're overly anxious when taking exams, and you can see that this might be a personal CER,  
describe how you could use the principle of extinction to weaken this response.  
2.Operant conditioning List three ways you can positively reinforce yourself for studying, completing assignments, and  
attending class.  
3.Cognitive–social learning Discuss with friends what they do to succeed in college classes and how participating in club and  
campus activities can reinforce your commitment to education.  
Retrieval Practice 6.3 Cognitive-Social Learning  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by  
looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
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Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe how cognitive–social learning differs from classical conditioning and operant conditioning.  
2\.   
Insight learning is ________.  
a. based on unconscious classical conditioning  
b. an innate human reflex  
c. a sudden flash of understanding  
d. an artifact of operant conditioning  
3\.   
When walking to your psychology class, you note that the path you normally take is blocked for construction, so you quickly  
choose an alternate route. This demonstrates that you've developed ________of your campus.  
a. a neural map  
b. insight learning into the layout  
c. a cognitive map  
d. none of these representations  
4\.   
Latent learning occurs without being rewarded and ________.  
a. remains hidden until a future time when it is needed  
b. is easily extinguished  
c. serves as a discriminative stimuli  
d. has been found only in nonhuman species  
5\.   
Bandura's observational learning studies focused on how ________.  
a. rats learn cognitive maps through exploration  
b. children learn aggressive behaviors by observing aggressive models  
c. cats learn problem solving through trial and error  
d. chimpanzees learn problem solving through reasoning  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the various  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 14 (Psychological Disorders), you'll learn that anxiety disorders affect more people than any other group of disorders.  
Why are so many people anxious and afraid? Has the dangerousness of our world changed so much? Or is it that our perception  
and awareness of its dangers have increased? What relationship might this have to the prevalence of anxiety disorders? Consider  
these questions from the perspective of cognitive–social theoryof learning.  
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.  
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6.4 Biology of Learning  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the biological factors in learning.  
•Explainhow learning changes our brains.  
•Describehow experiences and enriched environments affect our brains.  
•Discussthe importance of mirror neurons.  
•Summarizethe role of evolution in learning.  
Now that we've discussed how we learn through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive–social  
learning, we need to explore the key biological factors in all forms of learning. In this section, we will examine  
both neurological and evolutionary influences on learning.  
Neuroscience and Learning  
Each time we learn something, either consciously or unconsciously, that experience creates new synaptic  
connections and alterations in a wide network of our brain's structures, including the cortex, cerebellum,  
hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and amygdala. Interestingly , it appears that somewhat different areas of our  
brains respond to reinforcement and punishment (Correia & Goosens, [6.27]; Jean-Richard-Dit-Bressel &  
McNally, [6.47]; Ollmann et al., [6.68]). See Figure6.18.  
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Figure 6.18 How our brains respond to reinforcement  
versus punishment  
Evidence that learning changes brain structure first emerged in the 1960s, from studies of animals raised in  
enrichedversus deprivedenvironments. Compared with rats raised in a stimulus-poor environment, those raised in  
a colorful, stimulating “rat Disneyland” had a thicker cortex, increased nerve growth factor (NGF), more fully  
developed synapses, more dendritic branching, and improved performance on many tests of learning and memory  
(Ahlbeck et al., [6.2]; Hong et al., [6.45]; Lima et al., [6.53]).  
Admittedly , it is a big leap from rats to humans, but research suggests that the human brain also responds to  
environmental conditions (Figure6.19). For example, older adults who are exposed to stimulating environments  
generally perform better on intellectual and perceptual tasks than those in restricted environments (Petrosini et al.,  
[6.73]; Rohlfs Domínguez, [6.79]; Schaeffer et al., [6.81]). Similarly , babies who spend their early weeks and  
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months of life in an orphanage, and receive little or no one-on-one care or attention, show deficits in the cortex of  
the brain, indicating that early environmental conditions may have a lasting impact on cognitive development  
(Behen & Chugani, 2016; Moutsiana et al., [6.65]; Perego et al., [6.72]). The good news, however, is that children  
who are initially placed in an orphanage but later move on to foster care—where they receive more individual  
attention—show some improvements in brain development.  
Figure 6.19 Environmental enrichment and the brainGiven  
that environmental conditions play such an essential role in  
enabling learning, can you see why it's so important to a  
child's brain development that he or she has the opportunity to  
attend classrooms like the one on the left, which is filled with  
stimulating toys, games, and books? Similarly , how might an  
“enriched” cage environment like the one on the right  
encourage brain growth in rats and mice?  
Mirror Neurons  
Researchers have identified another neurological influence on learning processes, particularly imitation and  
observational learning. When an adult models a facial expression, even very young infants will immediately  
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respond with a similar expression (Figure6.20). At nine months, infants will imitate facial actions a full day after  
first seeing them (Heimann & Meltzoff, [6.43]).  
Figure 6.20 Infant imitation—evidence of mirror neurons?In a  
series of well-known studies, Andrew Meltzoff and M. Keith  
Moore ([6.61], [6.62], [6.63]) found that newborns could easily  
imitate such facial movements as tongue protrusion, mouth  
opening, and lip pursing.  
How can newborn infants so quickly imitate the facial expressions of others? Using fMRIs and other brain-imaging  
techniques, researchers have identified specific mirror neuronsbelieved to be responsible for human empathy and  
imitation (Ahlsén, [6.3]; Fox et al., [6.37]; Praszkier, [6.74]). When we see other people in pain, one reason we  
empathize and “share their pain,” while seemingly unconsciously imitating their facial expressions, may be that our  
mirror neurons are firing.  
Mirror neurons were first discovered by neuroscientists who implanted wires in the brains of monkeys to monitor  
areas involved in planning and carrying out movement (Ferrari et al., [6.36]; Rizzolatti, [6.76]; Rizzolatti et al.,  
[6.77], [6.78]). When these monkeys moved and grasped an object, specific neurons fired, but they also fired when  
the monkeys simply observed another monkey performing the same or similar tasks.  
Scientists are excited about the promising links between mirror neurons and the thoughts, feelings, and actions of  
both human and nonhuman animals (Figure6.21). W e do not yet know the full extent of the influence of mirror  
neurons, nor do we know how they develop. However, we do appreciate that, thanks to our mirror neurons, we're  
born prepared to imitate, and imitation is essential to survival in our complex, highly developed social world.  
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Figure 6.21 Mirror  
neuronsHave you noticed how  
spectators at an athletic event  
sometimes slightly move their  
arms or legs in synchrony with  
the athletes? Mirror neurons may  
be the underlying biological  
mechanism for this imitation.  
Deficiencies in these neurons  
also might help explain the  
emotional deficits of children  
and adults with autism or  
schizophrenia, who often  
misunderstand the verbal and  
nonverbal cues of others (Alaerts  
et al., [6.4]; Brown et al., [6.18];  
van der W eiden et al., [6.96]).  
Biological Primes and Constraints on Learning  
In addition to being born with brains that adapt and change with learning, humans and other animals are also born  
with various innate reflexes and instincts that help ensure their survival. However, these evolutionary responses are  
inherently inflexible, whereas learning allows us to more flexibly respond to complex environmental cues, such as  
spoken words and written symbols, which in turn enables us to survive and prosper in a constantly changing world.  
As we've seen, learning even enables nonhuman animals to be classically conditioned to salivate to tones and  
operantly conditioned to perform a variety of novel behaviors, such as a seal balancing a ball on its nose.  
Classical Conditioning  
Evolutionary and learning theorists initially believed that the fundamental laws of conditioning would apply to  
almost all species and all behaviors. However, researchers have discovered that some associations are much more  
readily learned than others. As you recall, Pavlov's experiments required several pairings of the NS with the US  
before it elicited a response. However, it normally only requires a single pairing of a specific taste with nausea to  
produce a learned dislike for, and avoidance of, that taste. Like other classically conditioned responses, this  
reaction, known as a conditioned taste aversion, develops involuntarily (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Conditioned T aste A version  
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Y ears ago, a young woman named Rebecca unsuspectingly bit into a Butterfinger candy bar filled with small,  
wiggling maggots. Horrified, she ran gagging and screaming to the bathroom.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
After many years, Rebecca still feels nauseated when she even sees a Butterfinger candy bar. Can you use the term  
“discrimination” to explain why she doesn't feel similarly nauseated by the sight of a Snickers candy bar?  
2\.   
Under what conditions would a conditioned taste aversion be evolutionarily maladaptive?  
3\.   
Imagine someone developed a secret pill that could make alcohol, tobacco, and fatty foods an immediate  
conditioned taste aversion for everyone. W ould that be good or bad? Assuming it was totally safe, would you take  
the pill? Why or why not?  
The initial discovery of conditioned taste aversions is credited to psychologists John Garcia and his colleague  
Robert Koelling ([6.38]). They produced a taste aversion in lab rats by pairing sweetened water (NS) and a nauseaproducing drug (US). After being conditioned and then recovering from the illness, the rats refused to drink the  
sweetened water (CS) because of the conditioned taste aversion. As discussed earlier, when alcohol is paired with a  
nausea-producing drug (US), alcoholics may similarly learn to avoid drinking alcohol.  
Conditioned taste aversions illustrate a critical evolutionary process. Being biologically prepared to quickly  
associate nausea with food or drink is obviously adaptive because it helps us avoid that specific food or drink, and  
similar ones, in the future (Buss, [6.21]; Goldfinch, [6.41]; Shepherd, [6.84]).  
Similarly , perhaps because of the more “primitive” evolutionary threat posed by snakes, darkness, spiders, and  
heights, people tend to more easily develop phobias of these stimuli, compared to guns, knives, and electrical  
outlets. Research also shows that both adults and very young children have an innate ability to very quickly  
identify the presence of a snake, whereas they are less able to quickly identify other (non-life-threatening) objects,  
including a caterpillar , flower , or toad (LoBue & DeLoache, [6.54]; Mallan et al., [6.57]; Y oung et al., [6.99]). W e  
apparently inherit a built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses—but not  
others. This is known as biological preparedness.  
Operant Conditioning  
As we've just seen, there are both biological primes and limits on classical conditioning. The same is true in  
operant conditioning. It's relatively easy to train pigeons to peck at a light because this is among their natural foodsearching behaviors. However , other researchers have found that an animal's natural behavior pattern can interfere  
with the learning of certain operant responses. For example, early researchers tried to teach a chicken to play a  
modified form of baseball (Breland & Breland, [6.17]). Through shaping and reinforcement, the chicken first  
learned to pull a loop that activated a swinging bat and then learned to time its response to actually hit the ball.  
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Surprisingly , the researchers had more difficulty training the chicken to run to first base. Instead, it would often  
chase the moving ball as if it were food. Regardless of the lack of reinforcement for chasing the ball, the chicken's  
natural predatory behavior for chasing moving objects took precedence. This tendency for a conditioned behavior  
to revert (drift back) to innate response patterns is known as instinctive drift.  
Final Note  
In this chapter, we've discussed three general types of learning: classical, operant, and cognitive–social. W e've also  
examined several biological effects on learning. What is the most important “take-home message”? As humans, we  
have the ability to learn and change! Using what you've discovered in this chapter, we hope you'll remember to  
avoid using punishment whenever possible and “simply” reinforce desired behaviors. This basic principle can also  
be successfully applied on a national and global scale.  
Retrieval Practice 6.4 Biology of Learning  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Rats ________developed a thicker cortex, more fully developed synapses, and improved test performances.  
a. given a restricted diet  
b. injected with nerve growth factor (NGF)  
c. raised in an enriched environment  
d. in none of these conditions  
2\.   
________neurons may be responsible for human empathy and imitation.  
3\.   
Rebecca's story of becoming nauseated and vomiting after eating a spoiled candy bar is a good example of  
________.  
a. a biological imperative  
b. a conditioned taste aversion  
c. learned empathy  
d. negative reinforcement  
4\.   
Being innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses is called ________.  
a. biological readiness  
b. vicarious learning  
c. superstitious priming  
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d. biological preparedness  
5\.   
The fact that chickens trained to play baseball tend to chase the ball, rather than running to first base, is an example  
of ________.  
a. latent learning  
b. biological unpreparedness  
c. instinctive drift  
d. none of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the various subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), you learned about the role of neurotransmitters in the  
brain, including those involved in learning. If you had the option to take a drug that would enhance learning by  
changing your brain's levels of neurotransmitters, would you consider it? What are the potential advantages and  
disadvantages?


	7. Chapter 7

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Print this page  
7.1 The Nature of Memory  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key factors, research findings, and major models of memory .  
•Definememory and its constructive process.  
•Discussthe four major memory models.  
•Explainthe function and process of sensory memory .  
•Reviewthe core principles of short-term memory (STM) and how it compares to working memory .  
•Describethe core features, functions, and various types of long-term memory (L TM), and how to improve it.  
One lives in the hope of becoming a memory.  
—Antonio Porchia (Argentinian Poet, Author , Philosopher)  
In Chapter 6, we discussed how the ability to learn is essential to our very survival because it allows us to learn and adapt to our ever-changing  
environment. But we cannot learn unless we can remember our past, weave it into our present, and then use our vast storehouse of memories in the  
future. Can you see why psychologists are so fascinated by memoryand why it's generally defined as learning that persists over time?  
Why should you be interested in this chapter? Y ou may have noticed that people often create journals and collect souvenirs on their trips, along with  
taking literally thousands of photos of themselves and their everyday lives. Given such common and obvious efforts to collect concrete evidence of  
experiences to preserve memories, it's ironic that the public tends to think of memory as a gigantic library or an automatic video recorder. As you'll  
discover later in this chapter, our memories are, in fact, highly fallible and very selective, and the public's unwarranted faith in eyewitness testimony  
has led to serious problems in legal settings and other situations (Baddeley et al., [7.9]; Matlin & Farmer, [7.94]; W an et al., [7.152]).  
In reality , studies find that memory is a constructive processthrough which we actively organize and shape information as it is being encoded, stored,  
and retrieved (Herriot, [7.58]; Karanian & Slotnick, [7.67]; Robins, [7.127]). This construction often leads to serious errors and biases, which we'll  
discuss throughout the chapter . If you'd like proof of the constructive nature of your own memory , see the following T ry This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself A Personal Memory T est  
Carefully read through all the words in the following list.  
Sour ChocolatePie Bitter  
Nice Heart HoneyGood  
Honey Cake Candy T aste  
ArtichokeT art Sugar T ooth  
Now cover the list and write down all the words you remember.  
Scoring:  
15 to 16 words = excellent  
10 to 14 words = average  
5 to 9 words = below average  
4 or fewer words = you might need a nap  
How did you do? Did you recall seeing the words “sour” and “tooth”? Most students do, and it's a good example of the serial-position effect—the  
first and last words in the list are more easily remembered than those in the middle. Did you remember the words “artichoke” and “honey”? If you  
recalled “artichoke,” it illustrates the power of distinctiveness, whereas if you remembered seeing “honey” it's because it was repeated two times.  
Both of these examples demonstrate how distinctive and/or repeated material are more easily encoded, stored, and recalled.  
Finally , did you recall the word “sweet”? If so, look back over the list. That word is not there, yet students commonly report seeing it. Why? Many of  
the items on the list are sweets, so they wrongly assume that word is also on the list. As mentioned above, memory is not a faithful duplicate of an  
event; it is a constructive process. W e actively shape and build on information as it is encoded and retrieved.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Other than this example of seeing the word “sweet,” can you think of another example in which you may have created a false memory?  
2\.   
How might constructive memories create misunderstandings at work and in our everyday relationships?  
Memory Models  
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T o understand memory (and its constructive nature), you need a model of how it operates. In Figure7.1, we provide a visual comparison of the four  
major models of memory, followed by a brief discussion of each model. Then we'll explore the fourth model in greater depth.  
Figure 7.1 Comparing memory models  
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (ESR ) Model  
According to the encoding, storage, and retrieval (ESR) model, the barrage of information that we encounter every day goes through three basic  
operations: encoding, storage, and r etrieval. Each of these processes represents a different function that is closely analogous to the parts and  
functions of a computer (Step-by-Step Diagram7.1).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 7.1 Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (ESR ) Model Compared with a  
Computer  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
T o input data into a computer, you begin by typing letters and numbers on the keyboard. The computer then translates these keystrokes into its own  
electronic language. In a roughly similar fashion, our brains encodesensory information (sound, visual images, and other senses) into a neural code  
(language) it can understand and use. Once information is encoded, it must be stored. Computer information is normally stored on a flash drive or  
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hard drive, whereas human information is stored in our brains. Finally , information must be retrieved, or taken out of storage. W e retrieve stored  
information by going to files on our computer or to “files” in our brains.  
Keep this model in mind. T o do well in college, or almost any other pursuit, you must successfully encode, store, and retrieve a large amount of facts  
and concepts. Throughout this chapter, we'll discuss ways to improve your memory during each of these steps.  
Levels of Processing Model  
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart ([7.30]) were the first to suggest that encoding can be influenced by how deeplywe process and store information.  
Their levels of processing modelrefers to a continuum ranging from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing leading to improved  
encoding, storage, and retrieval (Craik & Tulving, [7.31]; Dinsmore & Alexander, [7.35]).  
How can we “deep process” information? The most efficient way is to link the new material to previously stored information, a form of elaborative  
rehearsal. This is why your instructors (and we, the authors of this text) use so many analogies and metaphors to introduce new material. For  
example, we created Step-by-Step Diagram 7.1 to clarify that the ESR model of memory is analogous to the workings of a computer because we  
know that most of our readers have previous knowledge about the basic functions of computers. Another way to deeply process new information is  
by putting it into your own words and/or talking about it with others.  
Before going on, have you ever wondered why college instructors so often object to students using their smartphones during class lectures? It's  
primarily because instructors know that this type of distraction seriously interferes with selective attention and a deeper level of processing. But what  
about other activities, like taking pictures during significant events? Does being a photographer have similar negative effects? See the following  
Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Can T aking Photos Impair Our Memories?  
Researchers interested in this and related questions set up two studies using participants who were led on a guided tour of an art museum (Henkel,  
[7.57]). During the tour , participants were asked to take note of certain objects, either by photographing them or by simply observing them. The next  
day , their memory for the specific objects was tested. As you may have suspected, participants were less accurate in recognizing the objects they had  
photographed than those they had only observed, and they weren't able to answer as many questions about the objects' details.  
In contrast, when participants were asked to zoom in and photograph a specific part of the object, their subsequent recognition and detail memory  
were not impaired. Surprisingly, participants' memories for features that were NOT zoomed in on were just as strong as those for features that were  
zoomed in on. Can you see how the selective attention and deeper levels of processing engaged by this focused activity improve overall encoding and  
may eliminate the photo-taking-impairment effect?  
This research has valuable practical applications. Given that it's difficult to always pay full focused attention, we need to keep in mind that while  
we're mindlessly taking numerous “selfies” and other photos we may encode fewer details. Furthermore, taking photos the whole time we're on  
vacation or during a child's dance recital may interfere with not only our full enjoyment of the event, but our actual memories of those special  
occasions as well! (Study Tip: While reading this and other college texts and listening to lectures, you can improve your learning and memory by  
consciously directing your brain to pay focused, selective attention and “zooming in” on essential details.)  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Henkel, [7.57]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to groups,  
list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptive and correlational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
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Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and public  
reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical  
thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP ) Model  
A third way of thinking about memory is the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model, also known as connectionism(McClelland, [7.96];  
McClelland et al., [7.97]). As its name implies, this model also uses a computer metaphor but proposes that memory processes are paralleloperations  
performed simultaneously throughout the brain rather than sequential operations processed one at a time. In addition, memory is spread out, or  
distributed, throughout the brain in a web-like network of processing units.  
For example, if you're swimming in the ocean and see a large fin nearby , your brain does not conduct a one-by-one search of all fish with fins before  
urging you to begin a rush to shore. Instead, you conduct a mental parallelsearch. Y ou note the color of the fish, the shape of the fin, and the  
potential danger all at the same time. Because the processes are parallel, you can quickly process the information—and possibly avoid being eaten by  
the shark!  
The PDP model seems consistent with neurological information about brain activity (Chapter 2). Thanks to our richly interconnected synapses,  
activation of one neuron can influence many other neurons. This model also has been useful in explaining perception (Chapter 4), language (Chapter  
8), and decision making (Chapter 8). Perhaps most importantly , it allows a faster response time to sharks and other threats to our survival.  
Three-Stage Memory Model  
Since the late 1960s, the most highly researched and widely used memory model has been the three-stage memory model(Atkinson & Shiffrin, [7.3];  
Eichenbaum, [7.39]; Li, [7.81]). T oday , this model remains the leading paradigm in memory research because it offers a convenient way to organize  
the major research findings. Like the ESR model, the three-stage memory model has been compared to a computer, with input, processing, and  
output. However, in the three-stage model, the three different storage “boxes,” or memory stages, all perform both encoding and storage functions  
(Step-by-Step Diagram7.2). Let's consider each stage in more detail.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 7.2 An Update to the Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Each “box” in this model represents a separate memory storage system that differs in purpose, duration, and capacity from the others. When  
information is not transferred from sensory memory or short-term memory (STM), it is assumed to be lost. Information stored in long-term memory  
(L TM) can be retrieved and send back to short-term memory for use. In addition to the three traditional stages, modern research has discovered other  
routes to memory formation, such as through automatic encoding. As shown by the dotted line, and as you may know from personal experience,  
some information from the environment bypasses Steps 1 and 2 and gets into our long-term memory without our conscious awareness.  
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Stage 1: Sensory Memory  
Everything we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell must first enter our sensory memory. Once it's entered, the information remains in sensory memory  
just long enough for our brains to locate relevant bits of data and transfer it on to the next stage of memory . For visual information, known as iconic  
memory, the visual image (icon) stays in sensory memory only about one-half a second before it rapidly fades away .  
In an early study of iconic sensory memory , George Sperling ([7.141]) flashed an arrangement of 12 letters like the ones in Figure7.2 for 1/20 of a  
second. Most people, he found, could recall only 4 or 5 of the letters. But when instructed to report just the top, middle, or bottom row, depending on  
whether they heard a high, medium, or low tone, they reported almost all the letters correctly. Apparently , all 12 letters are held in sensory memory  
right after they're viewed, but only those that are immediately attended to are noted and processed.  
Figure 7.2 Sperling's test for  
iconic sensory memory  
Like the fleeting visual images in iconic memory, auditory stimuli (what we hear) is temporary . Y et a weaker “echo,” or echoic memory, of this  
auditory input lingers for up to four seconds (Erviti et al., [7.41]; Kojima et al., [7.69]; Neisser, [7.1 10]). Why are visual and auditory memories so  
fleeting? W e cannot process all incoming stimuli, so lower brain centers need only a few seconds to “decide” if the information is significant enough  
to promote to conscious awareness (Figure7.3).  
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a. V isual images—iconic memory  
T o demonstrate the duration of visual  
memory , or iconic memory, swing a  
flashlight in a dark room. Because the  
image, or icon, lingers for a fraction of a  
second after the flashlight is moved, you  
see the light as a continuous stream, as in  
this photo, rather than as a succession of  
individual points.  
b. Auditory stimuli—echoic memory  
Think back to a time when someone asked  
you a question while you were deeply  
absorbed in a task. Did you ask “What?”  
and then immediately answer without  
hearing a repeat of the question? Now you  
know why . A weaker “echo” (echoic  
memory) of auditory information is  
available in your sensory memory for up to  
four seconds.  
Figure 7.3 Demonstrating iconic and  
echoic memories  
Early researchers believed that sensory memory had an unlimited capacity. However , later research suggests that sensory memory does have limits  
and that stored images are fuzzier than once thought (Cohen, [7.24]; Franconeri et al., [7.46]; Howes & O'Shea, [7.61]).  
Stage 2: Short-T erm Memory (STM )  
The second stage of memory processing, short-term memory (STM), temporarily stores and processes sensory stimuli. Unlike sensory memory , STM  
does not store exact duplicatesof information but rather stores a mixture of perceptual analyses.  
For example, when your sensory memory registers the sound of your professor's voice, it holds the actual auditory information for only a few  
seconds. If the information requires further processing, it moves on to STM. While being transferred from sensory memory , the sound of your  
professor's words is converted into a larger, more inclusive type of message capable of being analyzed and interpreted in STM. If you decide the  
information is important (or may be on a test), your STM organizes and sends it along to relatively permanent storage, called long-term memory  
(L TM).  
Both the durationand capacityof STM are relatively limited. Although some researchers extend the time to a few minutes, most research shows that  
STM holds information for approximately 30 seconds (Bankó & Vidnyánsky , [7.10]; Nairne & Neath, [7.108]). STM also holds a restricted amount  
of new information, from five to nine items. As with sensory memory , information in STM either is transferred quickly into the next stage (L TM), or  
it decays and is theoretically lost.  
Improving Y our STM  
As just mentioned, the capacity and duration of STM are limited. To extend the capacityof STM, you can use a technique called chunking, which  
involves grouping separate pieces of information into larger, more manageable units (Gilbert et al., [7.50]; Miller, [7.103]; Portrat et al., [7.120]).  
Have you noticed that your credit card, social security card, and telephone numbers are almost always grouped into three or four distinct units  
(sometimes separated by hyphens)? The reason is that it's easier to remember numbers in chunks rather than as a string of single digits.  
Chunking even helps in football. What do you see when you observe the arrangement of players from a page of a sports playbook shown in Figure  
7.4? T o the inexpert eye, it looks like a random assembly of lines and arrows. But experienced players and seasoned fans generally recognize many  
or all of the standard plays. T o them, the scattered lines form meaningful patterns—classic arrangements that recur often. Just as you group the letters  
of this sentence into meaningful words and remember them long enough to understand the meaning of the sentence, expert football players group the  
different football plays into easily recalled patterns (or chunks).  
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Figure 7.4 Chunking in football  
Y ou can also extend the durationof your STM almost indefinitely by consciously “juggling” the information—a process called maintenance  
rehearsal. Y ou are using maintenance rehearsal when you look up a phone number and repeat it over and over until you key in the number.  
As you may know , people who are good at remembering names often take advantage of maintenance rehearsal. They repeat the name of each person  
they meet, aloud or silently , to keep it active in STM. They also make sure that other thoughts (such as their plans for what to say next) don't intrude.  
W orking Memory  
According to the traditional three-stage memory model, STM is a storehouse for information until it is either lost or moves along to LTM. However,  
we now know that STM is not just a “box” that passively stores information. Instead, it is a working, active system that allows us to hold information  
temporarily while also performing cognitive tasks. T o reflect this combination of STM and active processing, modern researchers use the term  
working memory(Baddeley , [7.7], [7.8]; Radvansky & Ashcraft. [7.124]).  
As you can see in Figure7.5, working memory is composed of a visuospatial sketchpad, a phonological loop, and a central executive. T o understand  
this three-part system, consider what's happening when we “channel surf.” As we all know , this “simply” involves pushing the channel selector on  
our television's remote control to quickly switch from channel to channel until we find something interesting to watch. But did you know that this  
process actually requires a complex interaction between all parts of our working memory system? During this “surfing,” the visuospatial sketchpad  
allows us to keep a brief mental image of each channel in mind, while the phonological loop enables us to continually mentally rehearse the auditory  
information. Even more amazing is the fact that we're simultaneously actively retrieving previously stored information from our L TM. W e then use  
all of this information to decide whether or not we like the particular programs we're briefly seeing on each channel.  
Figure 7.5 W orking memory as a three-part systemThe central executivesupervises and coordinates two  
subsystems, the phonological loopand the visuospatial sketchpad, while also sending and retrieving information to  
and from L TM. Picture yourself as a food server in a busy restaurant. A couple has just given you a complicated food  
order . When you mentally rehearse the food order (the phonological loop) and combine it with a mental picture of  
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your customers, their food orders, and the layout of plates on their table (the visuospatial sketchpad), you're using  
your central executive.  
Stage 3: Long-T erm Memory (L TM )  
Once information has been transferred from STM, it is organized and integrated with other information in long-term memory (L TM). L TM serves as  
a storehouse for information that must be kept for long periods. When we need the information, it is sent back to STM for our conscious use.  
Compared with sensory memory and short-term memory, long-term memory has relatively unlimited capacityand duration(Eichenbaum, [7.39]).  
But, just as with any other possession, the better we label and arrange our memories, the more readily we'll be able to retrieve them.  
How do we store the vast amount of information we collect over a lifetime? Several types of L TM exist (Figure7.6). Explicit/declarative memory  
refers to intentional learning or conscious knowledge. If asked to remember your phone number or your mother's name, you can easily state ( declare)  
the answers directly (explicitly). Explicit/declarative memory is further subdivided into two parts. Semantic memoryis memory for general  
knowledge, rules, events, facts, and specific information. It is our mental encyclopedia. In contrast, episodic memoryis like a mental diary . It records  
the major events (episodes) in our lives. Some of our episodic memories are short-lived, whereas others can last a lifetime.  
Figure 7.6 L TMis divided and subdivided into various types  
Implicit/nondeclarative memoryrefers to unintentional learning or unconscious knowledge. As you recall from Step-by-Step Diagram 7.2, certain  
memories get stored in L TM without going through the normal steps. This type of automatic encodingoccurs without our conscious awareness and is  
a form of implicit/nondeclarative memory . T ry telling someone how you tie your shoelaces without demonstrating the actual behavior. Because your  
memory of this skill is unconscious and hard to describe (declare) in words, this type of memory is sometimes referred to as nondeclarative.  
Implicit/nondeclarative memory consists not only of procedural motor skills, like tying your shoes or riding a bike, but also of classically  
conditioned emotional responses(CERs), such as fears and prejudices (Chapter 6). In addition, implicit/nondeclarative memory includes priming, in  
which exposure (often unconscious) to previously stored information predisposes (or primes) our responses to related stimuli (Cesario, [7.22]; Clark  
et al., [7.23]). As you may recall from Chapter 4, research on subliminal per ceptionfinds that certain unconscious (unnoticed) stimuli can reach our  
brains and predispose (prime) us to make it easier or more difficult to recall related information already in storage (Loebnitz & Aschemann-Witzel,  
[7.84]; Xiao & Y amauchi, [7.157]). For example, if a researcher shows you the words “red” and “fire engine,” you're more likely to quickly  
recognize the word “apple” because those words are already stored and closely associated in your memory . Additional examples are provided in the  
following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Can Our Emotions Be Primed?  
Have you ever felt nervous being home alone while reading a Stephen King novel, experienced sadness after hearing about a tragic event in the news,  
or developed amorous feelings while watching a romantic movie? These are all examples of how the situation we are in may influence our mood, in  
conscious or unconscious ways. Given this new insight into how priming can “set you up” for certain emotions, do you understand how those who  
haven't studied psychology might be more likely to mislabel or overreact to their feelings?  
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Before going on, have you ever wondered why most adults can recall almost nothing of the years before they reached age 3? This so-called infantile  
amnesiareflects the fact that memory in the first few years of life is primarily implicit/nondeclarative. Research suggests that the development of a  
concept of self and sufficient language, as well as growth of multiple brain regions, may be necessary for us to recall early events many years later  
(Lambert & Lavenex, [7.75]; Madsen & Kim, [7.92]; Uehara, [7.149]). In other words, we start with implicit/nondeclarative memory and only later  
develop explicit/declarative memory , which is necessary for us to encode, store, retrieve, and later discuss early memories. But even with this later  
development, some memories are more lasting than others. A case in point, many older adults describe their most lasting memories as occurring  
between the ages of 17 and 24, in part because our most notable life transitions—such as getting married, attending college, starting a first job, and  
having children—often happen during this period of time (Steiner et al., [7.142]).  
Improving Y our L TM  
There are three major ways we can improve L TM—organization, r ehearsal, and r etrieval tips.  
Organization  
T o successfully encode information, we need to organizematerial into hierarchies. This means arranging a number of related items into broad  
categories that we further divide and subdivide. (This organizational strategy for L TM is similar to the strategy of grouping and chunking material in  
STM.) For instance, we arrange content throughout this text in subheadings under larger, main headings and within diagrams, tables, and so on in  
order to make the material in the book more understandable and memorable.  
Admittedly , organization takes time and work, so you'll be happy to know that some memory organization and filing is done automatically while you  
sleep or nap (Adi-Japha & Karni, [7.1]; Cona et al., [7.27]; Nielsen et al., [7.111]). In fact, people who rest and close their eyes for as little as 10  
minutes show greater memory for details of a story they've just heard (Dewar et al., [7.34]). Unfortunately, despite claims to the contrary , research  
shows that we can't recruit our sleeping hours to memorize new material, such as a foreign language.  
Rehearsal  
As mentioned in Chapter 1 and discussed later in this chapter, the rehearsal that comes from practice testingand distributed practice(versus  
“cramming”) is the most effective method for improving your L TM—and exam scores (Carpenter & Y eung, [7.20]; Putnam et al., [7.122]; Trumbo et  
al., [7.145]). Why? Like organization, r ehearsalimproves encoding. If you need to hold information in STM for longer than 30 seconds, you can  
simply keep repeating it (maintenance rehearsal). But storage in L TM requires deeper levels of processingthrough methods such as elaborative  
r ehearsal. As described earlier , this simply involves making new information more meaningful in some way . For example, to remember the exact  
order of the colors of the rainbow , teachers often use the acronym “Roy G. Biv .”  
How does deeper processing and elaborative rehearsal apply to your academic life? An intriguing study found that students who took notes on  
laptops performed worse on conceptual questions than students who took notes on paper (Mueller & Oppenheimer, [7.106]). The researchers  
suggested that students who take notes using a laptop tend to just transcribe lectures verbatim ( shallow pr ocessing), rather than reframing lecture  
material in their own words (deeper processing). (Additional tips for improving elaborative rehearsal and deeper levels of processing are provided in  
the following T ry This Y ourself.)  
Try This Y ourself Improving Elaborative Rehearsal  
Think about the other students in your college classes. Have you noticed that older students often tend to get better grades? This is, in part, because  
they've lived longer and can tap into a greater wealth of previously stored material. If you're a younger student (or an older student just returning to  
college), you can learn to process information at a deeper level and build your elaborative rehearsal skills by:  
•Expanding (or elaborating on) the information The more you elaborate, or try to understand something, the more likely you are to remember it.  
People who have a chance to reflect on a task show better learning and memory than those who don't (Schlichting & Preston, [7.133]). This study  
has clear implications for teachers. Asking students to reflect on what they've just learned helps prompt them to remember that information better.  
As a student, you can discuss the major points of a lecture with your study group or practice repeating or reading something aloud. It's another  
form of elaborative rehearsal (Lafleur & Boucher, [7.50]).  
•Linking new information to yourself All humans think about themselves many times each day. Therefore, creating links between new  
information and our own experiences, beliefs, and memories will naturally lead to easier, and more lasting, memories. In addition to applying  
new information to your personal life, which is known as the self-r eference effect, research shows that visual imagery(such as the numerous  
figures, photos and tables in this text and the personal images you create yourself) greatly improves L TM and decreases forgetting (Collins et al.,  
[7.26]; Leblond et al., [7.79]; Paivio, [7.1 12]).  
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•Finding meaningfulness When studying new terms in this book and other college textbooks, try to find meaning. If you want to add the term  
iconic memoryto your L TM, ask yourself, “What does the word iconicmean”? By looking it up on your smartphone, you'll discover that it comes  
from the Greek word for “image” or “likeness,” which adds meaning to the word and thereby increases your retention. Similarly, when you meet  
new people and want to remember their names, ask about their favorite TV shows, career plans, political beliefs, or anything else that requires  
deeper analysis. Y ou'll be much more likely to remember their names.  
Retrieval Tips  
Finally , effective r etrievalis critical to long-term memory . There are two types of retrieval cues. Specificcues require you only to r ecognizethe  
correct response. Generalcues require you to r ecallpreviously learned material by searching through all possible matches in L TM—a much more  
difficult task. Can you see how this explains why multiple-choice exams are generally easier than essay exams? See Figure7.7.  
Figure 7.7 Essay exams, retrieval cues, and planetsAre you wondering what these three things have in common? If so, stop and try to  
r ecallthe names of all the planets in our solar system. Almost everyone finds this difficult because recall requires retrieval using only  
general, nonspecific cues—as in naming the planets or taking an essay exam. In contrast, a r ecognitiontask requires you only to  
identify the correct response, as in a multiple-choice exam. Note how much easier it is to recognize the names of the planets when  
you're provided a specific retrieval cue, in this case the first three letters of each planet's name: Mer-, V en-, Ear-, Mar-, Jup-, Sat-, Ura-,  
Nep-, Plu-. (Note that in 2006, Pluto was officially declassified as a planet and is now considered a “dwarf planet.”)  
Whether cues require recall or only recognition is not all that matters. Imagine that while house hunting, you walk into a stranger's kitchen and are  
greeted with the unmistakable smell of freshly baked bread. Instantly , the aroma transports you back to your grandmother's kitchen, where you spent  
many childhood afternoons doing your homework. Y ou find yourself suddenly thinking of the mental shortcuts your grandmother taught you to help  
you learn your multiplication tables. Y ou hadn't thought about these little tricks for years, but somehow a whiff of baking bread brought them back to  
you. Why?  
In this imagined bread-baking episode, you have stumbled upon the encoding-specificity principle(T ulving & Thompson, [7.148]). In most cases,  
we're able to remember better when we attempt to recall information in the samecontext in which we learned it (Gao et al., [7.48]; Grzybowski et al.,  
[7.52]; Unsworth et al., [7.150]). Have you noticed that you tend to do better on exams when you take them in the same seat and classroom in which  
you originally studied the material? This happens because the matching location acts as a retrieval cue for the information.  
W e also remember information better when our moods during learning and retrieval match (Forgas & Eich, [7.45]; Rokke & L ystad, [7.128]). This  
phenomenon, called mood congruence, occurs because a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with a similar mood. When you're  
sad (or happy or angry), you're more likely to remember events and circumstances from other times when you were sad (or happy or angry).  
Retrieval is also improved when we are in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed. For example, people who are  
intoxicated will better remember events that happened in a previous drunken state, compared to when they were sober. This is called state-dependent  
r etrievalor state-dependent memory(Hunt & Barnet, [7.62]; Jafari-Sabet et al., [7.64]; Zarrindast et al., [7.160]).  
Study Tip  
If you'r e confused by these seemingly overlapping terms(retrieval cues, theencoding-specificity principle, mood congruence, andstate-dependent  
retrieval), just r emember that they're essentially different ways of improving retrieval by recr eating the original learning environment. Just as the  
smell of br ead might bring back specific memories of being in Grandma's house, you will do better on exams if your studying environment matches  
your testing environment.  
One final trick for giving your recall a boost is to use mnemonicdevices to encode items in a special way (Concept Organizer7.1). However, these  
devices take practice and time, and some students find that they get better results using the other well-researched principles discussed throughout this  
chapter .  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 7.1 Improving Y our Memory Using Mnemonic Devices  
These three mnemonics improve memory by tagging information to physical locations (method of loci), organizing information into main and  
subsidiary topics (an outline), and using familiar information to remember the unfamiliar (acronyms).  
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a.Method of loci Greek and Roman orators developed the method of locito keep track of the many parts of their long speeches. Orators would  
imagine the parts of their speeches attached to places in a courtyard. As shown below , if an opening point in a speech was the concept of justice,  
they might visualize a courthouse placed in the back corner of their garden. Continuing this imaginary garden walk, the second point the orator  
might make would be about the prison system, and the third would be a set of scales, symbolizing the need for balance in government.  
b.Outlining organization When listening to lectures and/or reading this text, draw a vertical line approximately 3 inches from the left margin of  
your notebook paper . W rite main headings from the chapter outline to the left of the line and add specific details and examples from the lecture or  
text on the right, as in this example:  
Outline Details and Examples from Lecture and Text  
1\. Nature of Memory __________  
a. Memory Models __________  
b. Sensory Memory __________  
c. Short-T erm Memory (STM) __________  
c.Acronyms T o use the acronym method, create a new code word from the first letters of the items you want to remember . For example, to recall  
the names of the Great Lakes, use the common acronym HOMES(Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). V isualizing homes on each lake  
also helps you remember the acronym homes.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
How could you use the method of loci to remember several items on your grocery shopping list?  
2\.   
How would you use the acronym method to remember the names of the last seven presidents of the United States?  
Retrieval Practice 7.1 The Nature of Memory  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B,  
will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Describe how the ESR model of memory can be compared to the workings of a computer.  
2\.   
Information in ________lasts only a few seconds or less and has a relatively large (but not unlimited) storage capacity .  
a. perceptual processes  
b. working memory  
c. short-term storage  
d. sensory memory  
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3\.   
________is the process of grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit.  
a. Chunking  
b. Collecting  
c. Conflation  
d. Dual-coding  
4\.   
In answering this question, the correct multiple-choice option may serve as a ________for recalling accurate information from your long-term  
memory .  
a. specificity code  
b. retrieval cue  
c. priming pump  
d. flashbulb stimulus  
5\.   
The encoding-specificity principle says that information retrieval is improved when ________.  
a. both maintenance and elaborative rehearsal are used  
b. reverberating circuits consolidate information  
c. conditions of retrieval are similar to encoding conditions  
d. long-term potentiation is accessed  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 4 (Sensation and Perception), you discovered the Gestalt principles of organization, which are based on our natural tendency to force  
patterns onto whatever we see. Explain how chunking(discussed in this chapter) might be considered an extension of Gestalt principles. Which of the  
principles (figur e-gr ound, proximity , continuity , closur e, similarity) do we use in chunking?  
.  
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7.2 Forgetting  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
•Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
•Review the research, major theories, and important factors in forgetting.  
•DescribeEbbinghaus's research on learning and forgetting.  
•Reviewthe five basic theories of forgetting.  
•Identifythree key factors involved in forgetting.  
W e've all had numerous experiences with for getting—the inability to remember information that was previously available. We misplace our  
keys, forget the name of a familiar person, and even miss major exams! Although forgetting can be annoying and sometimes even  
catastrophic, it's generally adaptive. If we remembered everything we ever saw, heard, or read, our minds would be overwhelmed with  
useless information.  
Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve  
Psychologists have long been interested in how and why we forget. Hermann Ebbinghaus first introduced the experimental study of learning  
and forgetting in 1885. Using himself as a research participant, Ebbinghaus calculated how long it took him to learn and then forget a list of  
three-letter nonsense syllables, such as SIBand RAL. As you can see in Figure7.8, his research revealed that forgetting begins soon after we  
learn something and then gradually tapers off (Ebbinghaus, [7.38]).  
Figure 7.8 How quickly we forgetEbbinghaus's  
research involved learning lists of three-letter  
nonsense syllables. He found that one hour after he  
knew a list perfectly , he remembered only 44% of the  
syllables. A day later, he recalled 35%, and a week  
later only 21%.  
If this dramatic “curve of forgetting” discourages you from studying, keep in mind that meaningful material is far more memorable than  
Ebbinghaus's nonsense syllables. Furthermore, after some time had passed and Ebbinghaus thought he had completely forgotten the  
material, he discovered that r elearningit took less time than the initial learning. Similarly , if your college requires you to repeat some of the  
math or foreign language courses you took in high school, you'll be happily surprised by how much you recall and how much easier it is to  
relearn the information the second time around.  
Theories of Forgetting  
As mentioned earlier, the ability to forget is essential to the proper functioning of memory , and psychologists have developed several  
theories to explain why forgetting occurs: decay, interfer ence, motivated forgetting, encoding failure, and r etrieval failure. As shown in  
Figure7.9, each theory focuses on a different stage of the memory process or a particular problem with encoding or retrieval.  
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Figure 7.9 Theories of forgettingWhich of the five theories of forgetting best applies to this cartoon?  
•In decay theory, memory is processed and stored in a physical form—for example, in a network of neurons. Connections between  
neurons probably deteriorate over time, leading to forgetting. This theory explains why skills and memory often degrade if they go  
unused (“use it or lose it”).  
•According to interfer ence theory, forgetting is caused by two competing memories, particularly memories with similar qualities. At  
least two types of interference exist: r etr oactiveand proactive(Figure7.10). When new information disrupts (interfer eswith) the recall  
of OLD, “retro” information, it is called retroactive interference(acting backward in time). Learning your new home address may cause  
you to forget your old home address. Conversely , when old information disrupts (interfer eswith) the recall of NEW information, it is  
called proactive interference(acting forward in time). Old information (like the Spanish you learned in high school) may interfere with  
your ability to learn and remember material from your new college course in French.  
a. Retroactive interference  
This so-called backward-actinginterference occurs when new  
information interferes with old information. This example comes from a  
story about an absent-minded ichthyology professor (fish specialist) who  
refused to learn the name of his college students. Asked why , he said,  
“Every time I learn a student's name, I forget the name of a fish!”  
b. Proactive interference  
Referred to as forwar d-acting, this type of interference occurs when old  
information interferes with new information. Have you ever been in  
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trouble because you used an old partner's name to refer to your new  
partner? Y ou now have a guilt-free explanation—proactive interference.  
Figure 7.10 Retroactive interference and proactive interference  
•Motivated forgetting theoryis based on the idea that we forget some information for a reason. According to Freudian theory (Chapter  
13), people forget unpleasant or anxiety-producing information, either consciously or unconsciously, such as the box of cookies you ate  
last night. Interestingly , in the first few moments after finishing a marathon race, athletes often rate the intensity and unpleasantness of  
their pain about a 5.5 on a scale of 1 to 10. However , when these same people are asked 3 to 6 months later to report how they felt after  
the race, they've forgotten their initial level of pain, and guess that it was about a 3 (Babel, [7.6]). Do you see how the runners probably  
enjoyed the overall experience of the event and are motivated to forget the pain? For similar reasons, this motivated forgetting theory  
may even help explain why all children aren't only children—mothers tend to forget the actual pain of childbirth!  
•In encoding failure theory, our sensory memory receives information and passes it to STM. But during the short time the information is  
in STM, we may overlook precise details and may not fully encode it, which results in a failure to pass along a complete memory to  
L TM (see the following Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Can Y ou Identify the Actual Coin?  
If you want a simple (and fascinating) example of encoding failure, try to identify which of the examples shown on the right is the  
closest match for the actual United States penny (top row) or Euro coin (bottom row). Despite having seen the U.S. penny literally  
thousands of times, most Americans have difficulty recognizing the exact duplicate of the penny . The same is true for Europeans who try  
to identify the exact duplicate Euro coin. (Each Euro coin has a map of Europe on one side, but each individual country has its own  
design on the opposite side.)  
How does this apply to your everyday life? Because most Americans and Europeans can easily recognize their country's coins by their  
size, color , and general appearance, they don't need to encode the fine details. Therefore, that information is never processed and stored  
in L TM. Now , think about a time when you took an exam and felt fairly confident that you did well, yet later received a low score. In  
taking exams, as in identifying coins, we may fail to succeed because we haven't encoded the fine details and passed them along for  
storage in our L TM. Keep in mind that you simply can't read a textbook like you casually read articles on the Internet or a novel. Y ou  
must slow down and encode the details.  
•According to r etrieval failure theory, memories stored in L TM aren't forgotten. They're just momentarily inaccessible. The tip-of-thetongue (TOT) phenomenon—the feeling that a word or an event you are trying to remember will pop out at any second—is an example  
of retrieval failure that results from interference, faulty cues, and high emotional arousal.  
Factors Involved in Forgetting  
In addition to the five basic theories of forgetting, there are five specific explanations for why we forget: the misinformation effect, the  
serial-position effect, sour ce amnesia, spacing of practice, and culture.  
1.Misinformation effect As mentioned earlier, our memories are highly fallible and filled with personal constructions that we create  
during encoding, storage, and retrieval. Research on the misinformation effectshows that misleading information that occurs after an  
eventmay further alter and revise those constructions. Can you see how this is another example of r etr oactive interference? Our original  
memories are forgotten or altered because of misleading post-event information. For example, as you will see, our introductory famous  
figure, Elizabeth Loftus, experienced the misinformation effect when her aunt told her that she, Elizabeth, had been the one to discover  
her own mother's body . Elizabeth actually altered her previous memories to fit with this new information.  
Another example comes from a study in which participants completed an interview in one room and then answered questions about it in  
another room (Morgan et al., [7.105]). Participants who received neutral questions like, “W as there a telephone in the room?” answered  
accurately for the most part, making errors on only 10% of the interview questions. However, other participants were asked questions  
such as, “What color was the telephone?” which falsely implied that there had been a telephone in the room. Of these respondents, 98%  
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“remembered” a telephone. Other experiments have documented the misinformation effect by showing participants doctored photos of  
themselves taking a completely fictitious hot-air balloon ride or by asking participants to simply imagine an event, such as having a  
nurse remove a skin sample from their finger . In these and similar cases, a large number of participants later believed that the misleading  
information was correct and that the fictitious or imagined events actually occurred (Kaplan et al., [7.66]; Kirk et al., [7.68]; T akarangi et  
al., [7.143]).  
2.Serial-position effect Stop for a moment, and write down the names of all the U.S. presidents that you can immediately recall. How did  
you do? Research shows that most people recall presidents from the beginning of history (e.g., W ashington, Adams, Jefferson) and the  
more recent past (e.g., Clinton, Bush, Obama, Trump). This is known as the serial-position effect(Figure7.11). W e tend to recall items  
at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (r ecency effect) better than those in the middle of the list. And when we do remember  
presidents in the middle, like Abraham Lincoln, it's normally because they are associated with significant events, such as Lincoln and the  
Civil W ar .  
Figure 7.11 The serial-position  
effectWhen we try to recall a list of  
similar items, we tend to remember  
the first and last items best. Do you  
see how you can use this information  
to improve your chances for  
employment success? If a potential  
employer calls you to set up an  
interview , you can increase the  
likelihood that the interviewer will  
remember you (and your application)  
by asking to be either the first  
(primacy effect) or last (r ecency  
effect) candidate.  
3.Source amnesia Each day we read, hear, and process an enormous amount of information, and it's easy to get confused about how we  
learned who said what to whom, and in what context. Forgetting the origin of a previously stored memory is known as source amnesia  
(Ferrie, [7.43]; Leichtman, [7.80]; Paterson et al., [7.115]). (See Figure7.12.)  
Figure 7.12 Source amnesia and  
negative political adsThink back to a  
recent political election. What type  
of television advertisements most  
readily come to mind? Research  
shows that we're more likely to  
recall ads that rely on creating  
negative feelings about one of the  
candidates. They stick in our  
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memory even if we initially have  
negative feelings about them  
(Lariscy & T inkham, [7.78]). In  
addition, over time the negative  
“facts” stay in our memory , and we  
forget the source—sour ce amnesia!  
The good news for politicians, and  
in your personal life, is that direct  
rebuttals of negative ads are  
generally effective and unlikely to  
backfire (W eeks & Garrett, [7.154]).  
4.Spacing of practice Y ou've probably heard of Lumosity, a website heavily promoted on the Internet and in television ads. This website,  
along with similar websites and software programs, is fairly recent in origin. They promise to dramatically decrease forgetting and  
improve our memory , while revolutionizing the way we learn (Schroers, [7.135]; W eir , [7.155]). Interestingly , most of these “new”  
programs are based on the older, well-established principle of distributed practice, in which studying or practice is broken up into a  
number of short sessions spaced out over time to allow numerous opportunities for “drill and practice.” As you first discovered in the  
T ools for Student Successat the end of Chapter 1, this type of spaced learning is widely recognized as one of the very best tools for  
learning and grade improvement (Dunlosky et al., [7.37]; Küpper-T etzel, [7.72]; Mettler et al., [7.101]). In response to these research  
findings on the superiority of distributed practice, we've built in numerous opportunities for distributed practice and self-tests throughout  
this text. Unfortunately , many students do the exact opposite! They put off studying and believe they're better off using massed practice  
or “cramming” right before an exam, which is proven to be far less effective than distributed practice.  
5.Culture Finally , as discussed in the following Gender and Cultural Diversity , cultural factors can play a role in memory and how well  
people remember what they have learned (Gutchess & Huff, [7.54]; W ang, [7.153]).  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Does Culture Affect Memory?  
As discussed in Chapter 1, we're often unaware of how cultural forces affect us, and this is particularly true of how they affect what we  
value and remember . People raised in individualistic cultur es, such as North American and W estern European, tend to value the needs  
and goals of the individual, whereas those who grow up in collectivistic cultures, such as Asian and W est African, generally emphasize  
the needs and goals of the group. Research has revealed several cross-cultural differences between these two groups, including variations  
in cognitive biases, memory for objects versus background, episodic memory , and even emotional memories evoked by music (Guchess  
& Huff, [7.54]; Juslin et al., [7.65]; Schwartz et al., [7.136]).  
These studies clearly show that culture shapes our memories. However, maybe it's more valuable to understand how and why these  
differences develop. For that, let's look at everyday experiences and some classic historical research. For example, how do you  
remember the dates for all your college quizzes, exams, and assignments or the items you need to buy at the supermarket? Most people  
from industrialized societies rely on written shopping lists, calendars, or computers to store information and prevent forgetting. What  
would it be like if you had to rely solely on your memory to store and retrieve all your learned information? Do people raised in  
preliterate societies with rich oral traditions develop better memory skills than do people raised in literate societies?  
Ross and Millson ([7.130]) designed a cross-cultural study to explore these questions. They compared American and Ghanaian college  
students' abilities to remember stories that were read aloud. Students listened to the stories without taking notes and without being told  
they would be tested. T wo weeks later, all students were asked to write down as much as they could remember . The Ghanaian students  
had better recall than the Americans. Their superior performance was attributed to their culture's long oral tradition, which requires  
developing greater skill in encoding oral information.  
Does this mean that people from cultures with an oral tradition simply have better memories? Recall from Chapter 1 that a core  
requirement for scientific research is r eplicationand the generation of related hypotheses and studies. In this case, when other  
researchers orally presented nonliterate African participants with lists of words instead of stories, they did notperform better (Cole et al.,  
[7.25]). However , when both educated Africans and uneducated Africans were compared for memory of lists of words, the educated  
Africans performed better (Scribner, [7.138]). This suggests that formal schooling helps people develop memory strategies for things  
like lists of words. Preliterate participants may see such lists as unrelated and meaningless (Berry et al., [7.13]).  
W agner ([7.151]) conducted a study with Moroccan and Mexican children that helps explain the effect of formal schooling. Participants  
were first presented with seven cards that were placed face down in front of them, one at a time. They were then shown a card and asked  
to point out which of the seven cards was its duplicate. Everyone, regardless of culture or amount of schooling, was able to recall the  
latest cards presented (the r ecency effect). However , the amount of schooling significantly affected overall recall and the ability to recall  
the earliest cards presented (primacy effect).  
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W agner suggests that the primacy effect depends on r ehearsal—the silent repetition of things you're trying to remember—and that this  
strategy is strongly related to schooling. As a child in a typical classroom, you were expected to memorize letters, numbers,  
multiplication tables, and a host of other basic facts. This type of formal schooling provides years of practice in memorization and in  
applying these skills in test situations. According to W agner , memory has a “hardware” section that does not change across culture. But  
it also contains a “software” part that develops particular strategies for remembering, which are learned.  
In summary , research indicates that the “software” part of memory is affected by culture. In cultures in which communication relies on  
oral tradition, people develop good strategies for remembering orally presented stories (Figure7.13). In cultures in which formal  
schooling is the rule, people learn memory strategies that help them remember lists of items. From these studies, we can conclude that,  
across cultures, people tend to remember information that matters to them. They develop memory skills to match the demands of their  
environment.  
Figure 7.13 Culture and memoryIn many societies, tribal  
leaders pass down vital information through stories related  
orally . Because of this rich oral tradition, children living in  
these cultures have better memories for information related  
through stories than do other children.  
Retrieval Practice 7.2 Forgetting  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly explain the decay theory of forgetting.  
2\.   
The ________theory suggests that forgetting is caused by two competing memories, particularly memories with similar qualities.  
a. decay  
b. interference  
c. motivated forgetting  
d. encoding failure  
3\.   
The ________effect suggests that people will recall information presented at the beginning and end of a list better than information from  
the middle of a list.  
a. recency  
b. latency  
c. serial position  
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d. primacy  
4\.   
Distributed practice is a learning technique in which ________.  
a. students are distributed (spaced) equally throughout the room  
b. learning periods are broken up into a number of short sessions over a period of time  
c. learning decays faster than it can be distributed  
d. several students study together, distributing various subjects according to their individual strengths  
5\.   
Which of the following is notone of the key factors that contribute to forgetting outlined in the text?  
a. misinformation effect  
b. serial-position effect  
c. consolidation  
d. source amnesia  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
Remember the picture of different versions of the penny in Chapter 1? Now that you've read about memory , explain why it is so difficult to  
pick out the correct version of the penny from among the imposters.  
.  
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7.3 Biological Bases of Memory  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the biological factors involved in memory.  
•Describethe synaptic and neurotransmitter changes that occur when we learn and remember .  
•Identifythe major areas of the brain involved in memory storage.  
•Explainhow emotional arousal affects memory .  
•Discussthe biological factors in memory loss.  
So far we have explored the nature of memory and various models of how it is organized. W e've also examined various theories  
and factors involved in forgetting. In this section, we'll explore the biological bases of memory—synaptic and neurotransmitter  
changes, where memories are stored, the effects of emotional arousal, and the biological factors in memory loss.  
Synaptic and Neurotransmitter Changes  
In Chapters 2 and 6, we discussed how learning and memory modify our brains' neural networks. For instance, for people  
learning to play tennis, repeated practice builds specific neural pathways that make it progressively easier to get the ball over the  
net. These same pathways later enable players to remember how to play the game the next time they go out onto the tennis  
court.  
How do these biological changes, called long-term potentiation (L TP), occur? They happen in at least two ways. First, early  
research with rats raised in enriched environments found that repeated stimulation of a synapse strengthens it by causing the  
dendrites to grow more spines (Rosenzweig et al., [7.129]). This repeated stimulation further results in more synapses and  
additional receptor sites, along with increased sensitivity . Research on long-term potentiation (L TP) in humans also supports the  
idea that L TP is one of the major biological mechanisms underlying learning and memory (Baddeley et al., [7.9]; Camera et al.,  
[7.19]; Panja & Bramham, [7.1 13]).  
Second, when learning and memory occur, there is a measurable increase in the amount of neurotransmitter released, which in  
turn increases the neuron's efficiency in message transmission. Research with Aplysia(a type of sea slug) clearly demonstrates  
this effect (Figure7.14). Further evidence of the importance of neurotransmitters in memory comes from research with  
genetically engineered “smart mice,” which have extra receptors for a neurotransmitter named NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate).  
These mice perform significantly better on memory tasks than do normal mice (Lin et al., [7.82]; Plattner et al., [7.119]; T sien,  
[7.147]).  
Figure 7.14 How does a sea slug learn and  
remember?After repeated squirting with  
water, followed by a mild shock, the sea slug  
Aplysia releases more neurotransmitters at  
certain synapses. These synapses then become  
more efficient at transmitting signals that  
cause the slug to withdraw its gills when  
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squirted. As a critical thinker, can you explain  
why this ability might provide an evolutionary  
advantage?  
Although it is difficult to generalize from rats, mice, and sea slugs to humans, such research does show that synaptic and  
neurotransmitter changes within neurons are the biological bases of encoding—the essential first step to creating a new memory.  
Normal, everyday encoding begins with somewhat “unconscious” attention to a particular sensory message, such as a visual  
image, a sound, a taste, or some other sensation. This attention causes our neurons to fire more frequently and release more  
neurotransmitters, which makes the experience more intense. This, in turn, increases the likelihood that the event will be  
encoded and sent along to be stored in L TM.  
The Brain's Role in Memory  
W e've just seen how synaptic and neurotransmitter changes lead to encoding and to storage in L TM. W e turn now to exactly  
where and how those memories are processed and stored in our brains (Figure7.15).  
Figure 7.15 Major areas of the brain involved in  
memory  
Area of the  
Brain  
Effects on Memory  
Amygdala Emotional memories  
Basal ganglia  
and  
cerebellum  
Creation and storage of basic  
memory and  
implicit/nondeclarative L TM (such  
as skills, habits, and simple  
classically conditioned responses)  
Hippocampal  
formation  
(hippocampus  
and  
surrounding  
area)  
Explicit/declarative and  
implicit/nondeclarative L TM, as  
well as sequences of events  
Thalamus  
Formation of new memories and  
spatial and working memory;  
implicit/nondeclarative and  
explicit/declarative L TM  
Cerebral  
cortex  
Encoding, storage, and retrieval of  
explicit/declarative and  
implicit/nondeclarative L TM  
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Sources:Baddeley et al., [7.9]; Emilien &  
Durlach, [7.40]; Furuya et al., [7.47]; Garrett,  
[7.49]; Hara et al., [7.56]; McCormick et al.,  
[7.98]; Radvansky & Ashcraft, [7.124]; Y amazaki  
et al., [7.158].  
Encoding begins with a focusing of our attention, which is controlled by our thalamusand fr ontal lobes. The encoded neural  
messages are then decoded (interpreted) in various areas in our cerebral cortex. Next, they're sent along to the hippocampus,  
which “decides” which of these messages will be stored in L TM. As you will see, emotional arousal tends to increase attention,  
and those messages and resulting memories are primarily processed and stored in the amygdala, a brain structure involved in  
emotion.  
Keep in mind that memory is not a single process. Different types of memory involve different neural systems (Foerde &  
Shohamy , [7.44]). For example, the basal gangliaare important in implicit/nondeclarative memory (motor skills and habits,  
conditioned responses, and priming). In contrast, the temporal lobesare key to explicit/declarative memory (facts and general  
knowledge, as well as personal experiences).  
Early memory researchers believed that memory was localized, or stored in a particular brain area. T oday , research techniques  
are so advanced that we can identify specific brain areas that are activated or changed during memory processes by using  
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain scans. From these scans and other research methods, we now know that, in  
fact, memory tends to be distributed in many areas throughout the brain (see again Figure 7.15).  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
What effect might damage to the amygdala have on a person's relationships with others?  
2\.   
How might damage to your thalamus affect your day-to-day functioning?  
Emotional Arousal and Memory  
As we've just seen, memory formation begins when we pay attention to certain stimuli. This attention then triggers synaptic and  
neurotransmitter changes that result in encoding, which, in turn, produces neural messages that are processed and stored in  
various areas of our brains. Interestingly , high levels of emotional arousal appear to lead to a type of attention narrowing. This  
results in details directly connected with the source of the arousal being more strongly encoded than the peripheral details,  
which are often fuzzy or lost. Does this help explain why if you're attacked by a mugger with a knife you might remember a lot  
about the knife but little about the attacker or the surroundings?  
What are the biological processes behind this type of attention narrowing? When stressed or excited, we naturally produce  
neurotransmitters and hormones that arouse the body , such as epinephrineand cortisol(Chapter 3). These chemicals also affect  
parts of the brain, including the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the cerebral cortex. Research has shown that these chemicals  
can interfere with, as well as enhance, how we encode, store, and retrieve our memories (Conway, [7.28]; Emilien & Durlach,  
[7.40]; Quas et al., [7.123]).  
Surprisingly , some studies suggest that sexual arousal due to exposure to pornography can also disrupt memory . Researchers in  
one study asked men to view a series of both pornographic and nonpornographic images and judge whether they had previously  
seen each image (Laier et al., [7.74]). Men who saw the nonsexual images gave 80% correct answers, whereas men who saw the  
pornographic images gave only 67% correct answers.  
Rather than disrupting memory , emotional arousal can sometimes lead to memory enhancement. During significant historical,  
public, or autobiographical events, like the 9/11 attack or the 2016 presidential election, it appears that our minds automatically  
create flashbulb memories (FBMs)—vivid, detailed, and near-permanent memories of emotionally significant moments or  
events (Brown & Kulik, [7.18]). W e tend to remember incredible details, such as where we were, what was going on, and how  
we and others were feeling and reacting at that moment in time. And these memories are long lasting. In fact, researchers have  
found that people have retained their FBMs of the 9/11 attack for as long as 10 years and that their confidence in these memories  
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has remained high (Hirst et al., [7.59]). W e also sometimes create uniquely personal (and happy) FBMs (Figure7.16) (See the  
Study Tip for an explanation of the term “flashbulb.”).  
Figure 7.16 Common FBMs  
Why do most people clearly  
remember their college graduations  
and wedding ceremonies? Most of us  
experience higher levels of  
emotionality during these happy  
occasions, as shown in this photo of  
one of your authors, Catherine  
Sanderson, and her husband on their  
wedding day . Therefore, we tend to  
automatically create detailed, longlasting flashbulb memories (FBMs)  
of our thoughts, feelings, and actions  
during such momentous events.  
Thinking Critically  
1\.   
Do your personal memories of  
highly emotional events fit with what  
FBM research suggests? Why or  
why not?  
2\.   
Despite documented errors with  
FBMs, most people are very  
confident in the accuracy of their  
personal FBMs. What problems  
might result from this  
overconfidence?  
Study Tip  
Note that the term “flashbulb” refers to older times, when a photographer would snap a photo and at that moment a noticeably  
strong flashbulb would go off to increase the light exposure and improve the photo's quality . T oday , we use the term FBM to  
capture the idea that during moments of exceptionally high emotional arousal, our minds take an automatic “picture” and create  
a lasting memory of that event.  
How does this happen? It's as if our brains command us to take “flash pictures” of these highly emotional events in order for us  
to “pay attention, learn, and remember .” As we've seen, a flood of neurotransmitters and hormones helps create strong,  
immediate memories. Furthermore, as discussed in Chapter 3, the flood of the hormone cortisol that happens during traumatic  
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events has been studied as a contributor to long-lasting memories and, sadly , to PTSD (Drexler et al., [7.36]). Along with these  
chemical changes, we actively replay these memories in our minds again and again, which further encourages stronger and more  
lasting memories (Figure7.17).  
Figure 7.17 A negative (and  
thankfully uncommon) FBMIn  
2001, Air Transit (A T) Flight 236  
ran out of fuel over the Atlantic  
Ocean and everyone on board  
prepared for a water landing.  
Thankfully , the plane was able to  
glide safely to an island military  
base (McKinnon et al., [7.99]).  
Although no one was seriously  
hurt, virtually everyone  
experienced severe anxiety for the  
25 minutes spent preparing to  
ditch at sea. This near accident  
occurred in 2001, and research on  
the passengers' memory of the  
event was conducted in 2014.  
Despite the passage of time, the  
passengers showed enhanced  
episodic recall of the event,  
including details like the oxygen  
masks coming down, jumping  
down the slide, and putting on life  
jackets.  
Keep in mind that research shows that our FBMs for specific details, particularly the time and place the emotional event  
occurred, are fairly accurate (Rimmele et al., [7.126]). However, these FBMs also suffer the same alterations and decay as all  
other forms of memory . They're NOT perfect recordings of events (Hirst et al., [7.59]; Lanciano et al., [7.77]; Schmidt, [7.134]).  
For instance, President George W . Bush's memory for how he heard the news of the September 11, 2001, attacks contained  
several errors (Greenberg, [7.51]). Similarly , shortly after the death of Michael Jackson, researchers asked participants to report  
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on their FBMs and other reactions to the news of his death. When these same people were interviewed again 18 months later,  
researchers found that despite several discrepancies in their memories, confidence in their personal accuracy remained high  
(Day & Ross, [7.32]).  
In sum, FBMs, like other forms of memory , are subject to alterations. What separates them from ordinary , everyday memories is  
their vividness and our subjective confidence in their accuracy . But confidence is not the same as accuracy—an important point  
we'll return to in the last part of this chapter. Perhaps the most important take-home message is that our memory processes are  
sometimes impaired during high emotional arousal (Figure7.18).  
Figure 7.18 How emotional arousal may  
threaten our survival!News reports are filled  
with stories of people becoming dangerously  
confused during fires or other emergencies  
because they panic and forget vital survival  
tips, such as the closest exit routes. Does this  
help explain why airlines and fire departments  
routinely provide safety and evacuation drills?  
And why it's dangerous to drive when we're  
arguing with a loved one or to discipline our  
children when we're very angry? Recognizing  
that we're sometimes “not in our right minds”  
during times of high emotional arousal may  
save our lives—and our relationships!  
The Biology of Memory Loss  
So far in this section, we've discussed the neuronal and synaptic changes that occur when we learn and remember, the major  
brain areas involved in memory activation and storage, and how emotional arousal affects memory . Now we will explore the  
biological processes linked to memory loss.  
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI )  
One of the leading causes of neurological disorders—including memory loss—among young U.S. men and women between the  
ages of 15 and 25 is traumatic brain injury (TBI). These injuries most commonly result from car accidents, falls, blows, and  
gunshot wounds. TBI happens when the skull suddenly collides with another object. Compression, twisting, and distortion of the  
brain inside the skull all cause serious and sometimes permanent damage to the brain. The frontal and temporal lobes often take  
the heaviest hit because they directly collide with the bony ridges inside the skull.  
One of the most troubling, and controversial, causes of TBIs is severe or repeated blows to the head during sports participation  
(CDC, [7.21]; Pearce et al., [7.118]; Solomon & Zuckerman, [7.140]). Both professional and nonprofessional athletes frequently  
experience concussions, a form of TBI, and multiple concussions can lead to chr onic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Sadly ,  
the frequency of sports-related brain injuries may have been grossly underestimated (Baugh et al., [7.12]), and a growing body  
of research connects these multiple brain injuries to diseases and disorders like Alzheimer's, depression, and even suicide  
(Figure7.19).  
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Figure 7.19 Professional  
sports and brain  
damageJunior Seau  
(photo on the left), a  
10-time all-pro  
linebacker in the  
National Football  
League (NFL), died  
as a result of suicide  
in 2012 at the age of  
43\. Experts later  
concluded that Seau  
suffered from  
chronic traumatic  
encephalopathy  
(CTE), a serious  
neurological disease  
linked to  
concussions—and to  
similar deaths of  
other sports players  
(CDC, [7.21]; Park,  
[7.1 14]; Pearce et  
al., [7.118]). Due to  
his personal  
concerns over  
concussions, NFL  
linebacker Chris  
Borland, one of the  
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league's top rookies  
(photo on the right),  
quit playing in 2015  
despite being in the  
prime of his athletic  
career .  
Amnesia  
Now that we know a little more about brain injuries, let's examine the general topic of amnesia, or memory loss, which may be  
caused by brain injuries. Although being completely amnesic about your past and not knowing who you are is a common plot in  
movies and on television, real-life amnesia generally doesn't cause a complete loss of self-identity. Instead, the individual  
typically has trouble retrieving more widespread and general old memories or forming new ones. These two forms of amnesia  
are called r etr ogradeand anterograde(Figure7.20).  
Figure 7.20 T wo types of amnesia  
Like retrograde interference (discussed earlier), retrograde amnesiaacts backward in time. The person has no memory (is  
amnesic) for events that occurred beforethe brain injury because those memories were never stored in L TM. However, the same  
person has no trouble remembering things that happened after the injury . As the name implies, only the old, “retro,” memories  
are lost.  
What causes retrograde amnesia? We learned earlier that during long-term potentiation (L TP), our neurons change to  
accommodate new learning. In addition, we know that it takes a certain amount of time for these neural changes to become fixed  
and stable in long-term memory , a process known as consolidation. Like heavy rain on wet cement, the brain injury “wipes  
away” unstable memories because the cement has not yet had time to harden. In cases where the individual is only amnesic for  
the events right before the brain injury , the cause may be a failure of consolidation.  
In contrast to retrograde amnesia, in which people lose memories for events beforea brain injury , some people lose memory for  
events that occur aftera brain injury , which is called anterograde amnesia. Like anterograde interference (discussed earlier), this  
type of amnesia acts forward in time. The victim has no memory (is amnesic) for events after the brain injury . This type of  
amnesia generally results from a surgical injury or from diseases, such as chronic alcoholism or senile dementia—a form of  
severe mental deterioration in old age. Continuing our analogy with cement, anterograde amnesia would be like having  
permanently hardened cement, which prevents the laying down of new memories.  
Keep in mind that retrograde amnesia is normally temporary and somewhat common, such as what happens to football players  
after a head injury . In contrast, anterograde amnesia is relatively rare and most often permanent. However, patients often show  
surprising abilities to learn and remember procedural motor skills, such as mowing a lawn.  
Also note that some individuals have both forms of amnesia. For example, a famous patient (officially referred to as H.M.) was  
27 when he underwent brain surgery to correct his severe epileptic seizures. Although the surgery improved his medical  
problem, something was clearly wrong with H.M.'s L TM. When his uncle died, he grieved in a normal way . But soon after , he  
began to ask why his uncle never visited him. H.M. had to be repeatedly reminded of his uncle's death, and each reminder would  
begin a new mourning process.  
Can you see how H.M.'s loss of memory for his uncle's death is an example of extreme anterograde amnesia? H.M. lost the  
ability to form new memories. But he also suffered mild memory loss for events and people before the operation—retrograde  
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amnesia. Sadly , H.M. lived another 55 years after the operation not recognizing the people who cared for him daily . Each time  
he met his caregivers, read a book, or ate a meal, it was as if for the first time (Augustinack et al., [7.5]; Corkin, [7.29];  
Mauguière & Corkin, [7.95]). H.M. died in 2008—never having regained his long-term memory.  
Alzheimer's Disease (AD )  
Like TBIs, which can cause amnesia, various diseases can alter the physiology of the brain and nervous system and thereby  
disrupt memory processes. For example, Alzheimer's disease (AD)is a progressive mental deterioration that occurs most  
commonly in old age (Figure7.21). The most noticeable early symptoms are disturbances in memory , which become  
progressively worse until, in the final stages, the person fails to recognize loved ones, needs total nursing care, and ultimately  
dies.  
a. Normal brain  
In this PET scan of a normal brain, note  
the high amount of red and yellow (signs  
of brain activity).  
b. Brain of a person with AD  
In this PET scan of a person with AD,  
note how the reduced activity in the brain  
is most significant in the temporal and  
parietal lobes (the mostly black areas in  
the center and on the sides of this AD  
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patient's brain). These are the major areas  
for storing memories.  
Figure 7.21 The effect of Alzheimer's  
disease (AD) on the brain  
Alzheimer's does not attack all types of memory equally. A hallmark of the disease is an extreme decrease in explicit/declarative  
memory—failing to recall facts, information, and personal life experiences (Howes & O'Shea, [7.61]; Müller et al., [7.107];  
Redondo et al., [7.125]). However, those who suffer from AD generally retain some implicit/nondeclarativememories, such as  
simple classically conditioned responses and procedural tasks like brushing their teeth.  
What causes AD? Brain autopsies of people with Alzheimer's show unusual tangles(structures formed from degenerating cell  
bodies) and plaques(structures formed from degenerating axons and dendrites). Early-onset Alzheimer's typically strikes its  
victims between the ages of 45 and 55, and a genetic mutation is generally the cause. In contrast, late-onset Alzheimer's  
normally develops from brain changes that occur over decades and from a mixture of multiple factors (Guekht, [7.53]; Kumar et  
al., [7.71]; T ousseyn et al., [7.144]).  
Unfortunately , at this time, there is no effective means for early diagnosis of Alzheimer's. However, there is promising research  
based on tell-tale changes in the retina of the human eye (T sai et al., [7.146]). In addition, individuals with AD may benefit from  
a healthy diet and exercise program. One encouraging study found that 9 out of 10 patients with AD who adopted such a  
program showed substantial improvement in memory and cognitive function, yet they are still expected to continue to  
deteriorate over time (Bredesen, [7.15]).  
Retrieval Practice 7.3 Biological Bases of Memory  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by  
looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Define long-term potentiation (L TP).  
2\.   
Y our vivid memory of what you were doing when you were first informed about your parents' impending divorce might be an  
example of ________.  
a. encoding specificity  
b. long-term potentiation (L TP)  
c. latent learning  
d. a flashbulb memory (FBM)  
3\.   
The leading cause of memory loss among young U.S. men and women between the ages of 15 and 25 is ________.  
a. age-related amnesia (A-RA)  
b. long-term potentiation (L TP)  
c. Alzheimer's disease (AD)  
d. traumatic brain injury (TBI)  
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4\.   
Ralph can't remember anything that happened to him before he fell through the floor of his tree house. His lack of memory of  
events before his fall is called ________amnesia.  
a. retroactive  
b. proactive  
c. retrograde  
d. anterograde  
5\.   
A progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss that occurs most commonly in elderly people is called  
________.  
a. retrieval loss syndrome deterioration  
b. prefrontal cortex disease (PCD)  
c. Alzheimer's disease (AD)  
d. age-related amnesia (A-RA)  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
1\.   
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), you learned about biological research methods and tools, including  
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Describe how you could use fMRI to discover where memories of music reside  
in the brain.  
2\.   
In Chapter 12 (Motivation and Emotion), you'll discover the optimal arousal theory, which states that we're motivated to  
maintain a level of arousal that maximizes our performance. Too little or too much arousal can hurt our performance. Explain  
how this theory is similar to how arousal affects memory .  
.  
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Print this page  
7.4 Memory Distortions and Improvement  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize how our memories get distorted and the resulting problems.  
•Discusshow our need for logic, consistency , and efficiency contributes to some memory distortions.  
•Describethe memory problems associated with eyewitness testimony .  
•Discussfalse versus repressed memories.  
•Reviewthe ten tips for memory improvement.  
Remembrance of things past is not necessarily the remembrance of things as they were.  
—Marcel Proust (French Author , Critic)  
At this point in your life, you've undoubtedly experienced a painful breakup of a serious love relationship and/or witnessed such breakups among  
your close friends. During these breakups, did you wonder how the reported experiences of two people in the same partnership could be so  
different? Why would each partner reconstruct his or her own personal memory of the relationship? How can we explain such common memory  
distortions?  
Understanding Memory Distortions  
There are several reasons why we shape, rearrange, and distort our memories. One of the most common is our need for logicand consistency.  
When we're initially forming new memories or sorting through old ones, we fill in missing pieces, make corrections, and rearrange information to  
make it logical and consistent with our previous experiences or personal desires. For example, if you left a relationship because you found a new  
partner, you might rearrange your memories to suit your belief that you two were mismatched from the beginning and that the new partner is your  
true, forever “soul mate.” However , if you were the one left behind, you might reconstruct your memories and now believe that you're lucky that  
the relationship ended because your partner was a manipulative “player” from the beginning.  
W e also edit, summarize, and augment new information and tie it to previously stored memories for the sake of efficiency. Unfortunately , this  
“efficient” shaping and constructing sometimes results in a loss of specific details that we may need later on. For instance, when taking notes  
during lectures, you can't (and shouldn't) record every word. Instead, you edit, summarize, and (hopefully) augment what you hear and tie it to  
other related material. However, your note taking may occasionally miss essential details that later trip you up during exams!  
Despite all their problems and biases, our memories are normally fairly accurate and serve us well in most situations. Human memory has evolved  
to encode, store, and retrieve general and/or vital information, such as the location of various buildings on our college campus or the importance  
of looking both ways when we cross the street. However, when faced with tasks that require encoding, storing, and retrieving precise details like  
those in a scholarly text, remembering names and faces of potential clients, or recalling where we left our house keys, our brains are not as wellequipped.  
Eyewitness T estimony  
Unfortunately , when our natural, everyday memory errors come into play in the criminal justice system, they may lead to wrongful judgments of  
guilt or innocence with possible life or death consequences. In the past, one of the best forms of trial evidence a lawyer could have was an  
eyewitness—“I was there; I saw it with my own eyes.” However, research has identified several problems with eyewitness testimony (Loftus,  
[7.86], [7.88]; Michael & Garry , [7.102]; W an et al., [7.152]). For example, if multiple eyewitnesses talk to one another after a crime, they may  
“remember” and corroborate erroneous details that someone else reported, which explains why police officers try to separate eyewitnesses while  
taking their reports.  
As a critical thinker, do you recognize how the details and problems we discussed earlier about flashbulb memories (FBMs) might also apply to  
eyewitness testimony? Traumatic events, like watching a crime, often create FBMs for eyewitnesses. Despite high confidence in their personally  
vivid memories, they can make serious errors, such as identifying an innocent person as the perpetrator (Figure7.22).  
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Figure 7.22 Dangerous eyewitness testimonyWith  
minimal physical evidence and a single eyewitness with  
something to gain by his testimony , Andre Hatchett was  
convicted of the murder of Neda Mae Carter in 1991.  
Tragically , Mr . Hatchett spent 25 years in prison before  
finally being exonerated, and eyewitness misidentification  
reportedly plays a role in more than 70% of the wrongful  
convictions that are later overturned through DNA testing  
(Augenstein, [7.4]; Innocence Project, [7.63]).  
Problems with eyewitness recollections are so well established that most judges now allow expert testimony on the unreliability of eyewitness  
testimony and routinely instruct jurors on its limits (Loftus, [7.88]; Pozzulo, [7.121]; Safer et al., [7.131]). If you serve as a member of a jury or  
listen to accounts of crimes in the news, remind yourself of these problems. Also, keep in mind that research participants in eyewitness studies  
generally report their inaccurate memories with great self-assurance and strong conviction (DeSoto & Roediger, [7.33]; Kaplan et al., [7.66];  
Morgan & Southwick, [7.104]).  
Interestingly , research now suggests that eyewitness statements taken at the time of the initial identification of a suspect are quite reliable (Wixted  
et al., [7.156]). And the overall accuracy of eyewitness testimony can be improved if people are asked to make very fast judgments (Brewer et al.,  
[7.16]). In fact, giving people only a few seconds to identify the culprit in a lineup increases the accuracy of such identifications by 20 to 30%,  
compared to allowing people to take as long as they want to make a decision. Surprisingly, even simply asking people to close their eyes when  
they're trying to remember leads to greater accuracy in both audio and visual details (Nash et al., [7.109]). Figure7.23 offers further insights on  
eyewitness testimony .  
Figure 7.23 Understanding and improving eyewitness testimony  
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False V ersus Repressed Memories  
W e invent memories. W ithout thinking. If we tell ourselves something happened often enough, we start to believe it, and then we can actually  
r emember it.  
—S. J. W atson (British W riter)  
Like eyewitness testimony , false memories can have serious legal, personal, and social implications. Do you recall our introductory story about  
memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus's amazing recovered memory of finding her drowned mother's body? If so, you might be even more shocked  
to discover that the relative who told Elizabeth that she had been the one to discover her mother's body later remembered—and other relatives  
confirmed—that it had actually been Aunt Pearl, not Elizabeth. Loftus, a world-renowned expert on memory distortions, had unknowingly created  
her own false memory.  
Understanding False Memories  
As demonstrated by Loftus's personal experience, extensive research has shown that it's relatively easy to create false memories (Kaplan et al.,  
[7.66]; Lindner & Henkel, [7.83]; L ynn et al., [7.91]). In fact, even innocent adult participants can be convinced, over the course of a few hours,  
that as teenagers they committed serious crimes (Shaw & Porter, [7.139]). This finding comes from a study in which researchers brought college  
students to the lab for three 40-minute interviews that took place about a week apart. In the first interview, the researchers told each student about  
two events he or she experienced as a teen, only one of which actually happened. These false events were serious, such as an assault, a theft, or a  
personal injury . (Each false-event story included some true details about that time in the student's life, which the researchers obtained from the  
student's parent or guardian.) Participants were then asked to explain what happened in both the true and false events. When they had difficulty  
explaining the false event, the interviewer encouraged them to try anyway , explaining that if they used specific memory strategies they might be  
able to recall more details. In the second and third interviews, the researchers again asked the students to recall as much as they could about both  
events. Surprisingly , over half the students had developed a false memory of the event, and many included elaborate details of their false  
experience.  
Similarly , a recent meta-analysis found that when presented with totally fabricated (but plausible) events that had supposedly happened to them  
when they were children, 46% of participants believed they had actually experienced the fake event, such as trouble with a teacher or taking a hotair balloon ride (Scoboria et al., [7.137]). Even more worrisome is the fact that 30% of these believers went on to invent further details that  
supposedly happened to them during the fictitious event.  
Do you recall our earlier discussion of the misinformation effectand how experimenters created a false memory of seeing a telephone in a room?  
Participants who were asked neutral questions, such as, “W as there a telephone in the room?” made errors on only 10% of the queries (Morgan et  
al., [7.105]). In contrast, when participants were asked, “What color was the telephone?” falsely implying that a telephone had been in the room,  
98% “remembered” it being there.  
T o make matters worse, once false memories have been formed, they can multiply over time—and last for years. Researchers in one study showed  
participants pictures of an event, such as a girl's wallet being stolen (Zhu et al., [7.161]). Participants then read a series of statements about the  
event, which included both accurate information (for instance, the person who took the girl's wallet was a man) and false information (the person  
who took the girl's wallet put it in his pants pocket). (In reality, the picture showed him hiding the wallet in his jacket.) Initially , after reading  
these statements, participants identified only 31% of the false events as having occurred. However, when participants were asked years later  
which events had occurred, they identified 39% of the false statements as true.  
As you can see, research like this has serious implications for the legal system. The good news is that research using brain scans has shown that  
different areas of the brain are activated during true versus false memories, which may lead to more reliable tests of memory ( Figure7.24).  
Figure 7.24 Brain scans  
detecting true versus false  
memoriesNote how different  
areas of the primary visual  
cortex are activated (the  
orange/white areas) when both  
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true and false memories are  
recalled (the scan on the left)  
versus when only true  
memories are recalled (the scan  
on the right).  
Are you wondering how all this research applies to our everyday life? In addition to serious legal problems with eyewitness testimony, false  
memories can influence our attitudes and behaviors, as well as our interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, even trained professionals may find it  
difficult to determine when someone is recalling a true or false memory (Scoboria et al., [7.137]). In short, remember that we're all vulnerable to  
creating and believing false memories. Just because something feels true, doesn't mean that it is (see the following Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself “False Daughter” Memories  
The following is a personal memory experience from a fellow psychologist. Do you think it qualifies as a true “false memory”? Why or why not?  
One of the co-authors of this book, Karen Huffman, is a dear friend of mine and we've co-taught intro psych for many years. During our times  
together in the classr oom, we've often told stories about our own children to pr ovide real-life examples of various psychological principles.  
Ir onically , in the chapter on memory , we suddenly r ealized that some of the stories we were curr ently telling our students about our respective  
daughters were becoming blended in our own minds. I couldn't remember whether certain events happened to one of my three daughters or to  
Karen's only daughter! For us, this became a perfect, personal example of the constructive nature of memory , as well as sour ce amnesia!  
—Katie T ownsend-Merino (Professor , Meditation Educator , W riter)  
Understanding Repressed Memories  
Creating false memories may be somewhat common, but can we recover true memories that are buried in childhood? There is a great deal of  
debate regarding so-called r epr essed memories(Boag, [7.14]; Brodsky & Gutheil, [7.17]; Kaplan et al., [7.66]). Repressionis Sigmund Freud's  
term for a basic coping or defense mechanism that prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, and memories from reaching consciousness  
(Chapter 13).  
According to some research, repressed memories are activelyand consciously“forgotten” in an effort to avoid the pain of their retrieval  
(Anderson et al., [7.2]; Boag, [7.14]). Do you recognize how in this case repression might be a form of motivated forgetting, which we discussed  
earlier? Others suggest that some memories are so painful that they exist only in an unconsciouscorner of the mind, making them inaccessible to  
the individual (Haaken, [7.55]; Mancia & Baggott, [7.93]). In these cases, therapy supposedly would be necessary to unlock the hidden memories.  
On the other hand, critics of repressed memories contend that most people who have witnessed or experienced a violent crime or have survived  
childhood sexual abuse have intense, persistent memories. They have trouble for getting, not remembering. Other skeptics wonder whether  
therapists may sometimes inadvertently create false memories in their clients during therapy . They propose that if a clinician suggests the  
possibility of abuse, the client's own constructive processesmay lead him or her to create a false memory. The client also might start to  
incorporate portrayals of abuse from movies and books into his or her own memory , forgetting their original sources (a form of sour ce amnesia)  
and eventually coming to see them as reliable.  
As you can see, the notion of repressed memory is hotly contested. What's the final answer? Repression is a complex and controversial topic in  
psychology . No one doubts that some memories are forgotten and later recovered. What some question is the idea that r epr essed memoriesof  
painful experiences (especially childhood sexual abuse) are stored in the unconscious mind, especially since these memories may play a deciding  
role in certain judicial processes (Howe & Knott, [7.60]; Lampinen & Beike, [7.76]; Loftus & Cahill, [7.89]). The stakes are high because  
lawsuits and criminal prosecutions of sexual abuse are sometimes based on recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. However, the socalled, “memory wars” may be getting less heated. Comparing attitudes in the 1990s to today, researchers found less belief in repressed memories  
among mainstream psychologists, as well as among undergraduates with greater critical-thinking abilities (Patihis et al., [7.117]).  
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Summing Up  
While the debate over repressed memories continues, we must be careful not to ridicule or condemn people who remember or recover true  
memories of abuse. In the same spirit, we must protect innocent people from wrongful accusations that come from false memories. Hopefully,  
with continued research (and perhaps new technology) we may someday better protect the interests of both the victim and the accused.  
T o close on another encouraging note, we're providing a final, brief section that summarizes the most effective strategies for memory  
improvement. One of the many beauties of our human brain is that we can recognize the limits and problems of memory and then develop  
appropriate coping mechanisms. Just as our ancestors domesticated wild horses and cattle to overcome the physical limits of the human body, we  
can develop similar approaches to improve our mental limits—especially those responsible for fine detail.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessCan Memory Impr ovement Incr ease Success?  
The following TEN TIPS for memory improvement are based on material discussed throughout this chapter, and they're particularly helpful for  
increasing college success and reducing wasted time. Given that the three basic steps in memory are encoding, storage, and r etrieval(the ESR  
model), we've arranged these tips accordingly. T o get the maximum benefits, first read through the list placing a check mark ✓in the blank space  
next to items you're currently using, a + mark by the tips you want to add, and a − mark by those strategies you don't plan to try. After adding the  
new skills to your daily study habits, look back and reconsider those items with a – mark. W e'd like to hear how these strategies work out for you  
(khuffman@palomar .edu, kdowdell@dmacc.edu, casanderson@amherst.edu).  
EncodingAs discussed earlier, the first step in memory is successful encoding. T o improve your study skills and exam performance, try these  
encoding tips:  
•__________ Pay attention and reduce interference. When you really want to remember something, you must selectively attendto that  
information and ignore distractions. During class, focus on the instructor, and sit away from distracting people or views outside. When  
studying, choose a place with minimal interferences. Also, recall from earlier chapters that multitaskingwhile studying or listening to lectures  
greatly increases interference and reduces your ability to pay attention.  
•__________ Strive for a deeper level of processing. Some students try to study important terms or concepts by highlighting, rereading, or  
simply repeating the information over and over to themselves. As you recall from Chapter 1, highlighting and rereading are the LEAST  
effective study techniques. While repeating information (maintenance rehearsal) does extend the duration of STM beyond the normal limits of  
about 30 seconds, this type of rehearsal, as well as highlighting and rereading, are all forms of shallow pr ocessing. They're not efficient for  
L TM or for preparing for exams. If you want to effectively encode (and later successfully retrieve) information, you need a deeper level of  
processing, which involves active reading and taking notes. Another way to deeply process is elaborativerehearsal, which involves thinking  
about the material and relating it to previously stored information. Hopefully, you've noticed that we formally define each key term  
immediately in the text and generally give a brief explanation with one or two examples for each term. While studying this text, use these  
tools to help your elaborative rehearsal—and thereby ensure a deeper level of processing. Also try making up your own examples. The more  
elaborate the encoding of information, the more memorable it will become.  
•__________ Counteract the serial-position effect. Because we tend to remember information that occurs at the beginning or end of a  
sequence, spend extra time with information in the middle. When reading or reviewing the text, start at different places—sometimes at the  
second section, sometimes near the end.  
StorageThe second step in successful memory is storage. The best way to create an effective storage system, in either your brain or your  
computer , is through logical filing and good organization. Try these two helpful tips:  
•__________ Use chunking. Although the storage capacity of STM is only around five to nine items, you can expand it by chunking  
information into groups. For example, if you need to remember a 12-digit number, try grouping it into four groups of three numbers.  
•__________ Create hierarchies. An efficient way to organize and store a large body of information is to create hierarchies, which involves  
grouping concepts from most general to most specific. Chapter outlines and the tables and figures in this text are examples of hierarchies. Be  
sure to study them carefully—and make up your own versions whenever possible.  
RetrievalThe third and final stage of successful memory is r etrieval. As you know , your grades in most courses are primarily determined by  
some form of quizzing or exams, both of which rely exclusively on retrieval. Here are five tips for improving retrieval:  
•__________ Engage in practice testing. Recall from Chapter 1 that research clearly shows that practice testing is one of the very best ways to  
improve your retrieval—and course grades (Carpenter & Y eung, [7.20]; Putnam et al., [7.122]; Trumbo et al., [7.145]). T aking tests is not a  
favorite pastime for most people. However, if you think of it as “practice,” then it becomes more attractive and logical. Just as we all need to  
practice our skateboarding tricks, golf swing, or dance routine, we need to practice testing ourselves—BEFORE any exam. This is why we  
provide so many self-testing options within this text (e.g., the learning objectives questions that start each section, the self-tests at the end of  
each major heading, and the key term review at the end of each chapter). W e also offer numerous additional free tests within WileyPlus(e.g.,  
ORION adaptive practice, application quizzes, and practice tests). Be sure to take advantage of these options.  
•__________ Distribute your practice. In addition to practice testing, the next best way to improve your memory is through distributed  
practice. Researchers have found that we encode, store, and retrieve information better when our study sessions are distributed (or spaced out)  
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over time (Carpenter & Y eung, [7.20]; Dunlosky et al., [7.37]; Kornmeier et al., [7.70]). Although massed practice(cramming) can produce  
speedy short-term learning, it's far less effective than distributed practice. There are at least two other major problems with staying up late or  
“pulling an all-nighter” to cram for exams: (1) being drowsy while studying or taking an exam negatively affects overall performance, and (2)  
during sleep we process and store most of the new information we acquired when awake (Chapter 5).  
•__________ Employ self-monitoring. When studying a text, you should periodically stop and test your understanding of the material using  
the built-in self-testing throughout each chapter . This type of self-monitoring is a common strategy of successful students. Even when you are  
studying a single sentence, you need to monitor your understanding. Furthermore, poor readers tend to read at the same speed for both easy  
and difficult material. Good readers (and more successful students) tend to monitor themselves, and they slow down or repeat difficult  
material. Keep in mind that if you evaluate your learning only while you're reading the material, you may overestimate your understanding  
(because the information is still in STM). However, if you delay for at least a few minutes, and then test your understanding, your evaluation  
will be more accurate.  
•__________ Overlearn essential material. Successful students know that the best way to ensure their full understanding of material (and  
success on an exam) is through overlearning—studying information even after you think you already know it. Don't just study until you think  
you know it. W ork hard until you knowyou know it!  
•__________ Recreate the original learning environment. As mentioned earlier , the terms r etrieval cues, encoding-specificity principle, mood  
congruence, and state-dependent retrieval allemphasize a central point—characteristics of the internal and external environment are key to  
the formation and retrieval of your memories (Figure7.25). Therefore, since you naturally encode a lot of material during class lectures,  
avoid “early takes” or makeup exams, because they're generally scheduled in a setting different from your original classroom. The contextwill  
be different, and your retrieval will suffer . Similarly , when you take a test, try to recreate the psychological and physiological states you were  
in when you originally learned the material. According to the mood-congruence effect, you will recall more if the mood of your test taking  
matches the mood of the original learning. Given that you'll naturally be somewhat anxious when taking a test, try to “hype yourself up”  
during class and while you're studying by reminding yourself of how important it is to do well on your upcoming exams. Similarly, in line  
with the state-dependent memoryresearch, if you normally drink coffee while studying, drink it again before or during your exams.  
Figure 7.25 What's wrong with this  
picture?Many students claim they study  
best while listening to music or while in  
a noisy environment. However, as you  
recall from Chapter 1, this type of  
multitasking almost always decreases  
overall performance, and that's  
particularly true when you're attempting  
to learn something new . Just as people  
are trained to give public speeches in  
front of an audience and deep-sea divers  
practice their diving underwater, you  
should, when you study , try to recreate  
the academic environment under which  
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you initially learn and will later perform.  
For example, when taking a test, most  
instructors will not allow you to wear  
headphones and will attempt to keep the  
room as quiet as possible. Therefore, this  
is the environment you need to recreate  
while studying.  
A Final W ord  
As we've seen throughout this chapter, our memories are remarkable—yet highly fickle. Recognizing our commonly shared frailties of memory  
will make us better jurors in the courtroom, more informed consumers, and more thoughtful, open-minded parents, teachers, students, and friends.  
Unfortunately , sometimes our memories are better than we would like. Traumatic, and extremely emotional, memories can persist even when we  
would very much like to forget. Though painful, these memories can sometimes provide valuable personal insights. As Elizabeth Loftus suggests  
in a letter to her deceased mother:  
I thought then [as a 14-year-old] that eventually I would get over your death. I know today that I won't. But I've decided to accept that truth. What  
does it matter if I don't get over you? Who says I have to? David and Robert still tease me: “Don't say the M word or Beth will cry .” So what if  
the wor d mother affects me this way? Who says I have to fix this? Besides, I'm too busy(Loftus, [7.85], p. 70).  
Retrieval Practice 7.4 Memory Distortions and Improvement  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe why we sometimes shape, rearrange, or distort our memories.  
2\.   
Researchers have demonstrated that it is ________to create false memories.  
a. relatively easy  
b. rarely possible  
c. moderately difficult  
d. never possible  
3\.   
Dave was told the same childhood story of his father saving his neighbor from a fire so many times that he is now sure it is true, but all the  
evidence proves it never happened. This is an example of ________.  
a. a repressed memory  
b. deluded childhood fantasies  
c. a false memory  
d. early-onset juvenile dementia  
4\.   
________memories are related to anxiety-provoking thoughts or events that are supposedly prevented from reaching consciousness.  
a. Suppressed  
b. Flashbulb  
c. Flashback  
d. Repressed  
5\.   
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T o improve your encoding, you should ________.  
a. pay attention and reduce interference  
b. strive for a deeper level of processing  
c. counteract the serial-position effect  
d. use all of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology  
and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 1 (Gender and Human Sexuality), you'll learn about child sexual abuseand rape. In this chapter , you discovered why we shape,  
rearrange, and distort our memories out of our need for logic and consistency , as well as for the sake of efficiency . Using this information on how  
and why we distort our memories, explain why victims might unintentionally distort their memories of childhood sexual abuse.


	8. Chapter 8

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8.1 Thinking  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize thinking, cognition, problem solving, and creativity .  
•Explaincognitive building blocks and how they affect thinking.  
•Describethe three stages of problem solving.  
•Reviewthe six potential barriers to problem solving.  
•Identifycreativity and its major characteristics.  
If you go on to major in psychology , you'll discover that researchers often group thinking, language, and intelligence  
under the larger umbrella of cognition, the mental activities of acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge  
(Groome et al., [8.63]; Matlin, [8.110]). T echnically , we discuss cognition throughout this text (for example, in chapters  
on sensation and perception, consciousness, learning, and memory). However, in this section we limit our discussion to  
thinking—what it is and where it's located.  
Every time we take in information and mentally act on it, we're thinking. These thought processes are both localized and  
distributed throughout our brains in networks of neurons. For example, during decision making, our brains are most  
active in the prefr ontal cortex. This region associates complex ideas; makes plans; forms, initiates, and allocates  
attention; and supports multitasking. The prefrontal cortex also links to other areas of the brain, such as the limbic  
system (Chapter 2), to synthesize information from several senses (Haas et al., [8.65]; Schmitgen et al., [8.157]; Viviani  
et al., [8.188]).  
As you may know , scientists have struggled for decades to create machines that can simulate human thought processes  
and performance. So far, this field, known as artificial intelligence (AI), has successfully developed computers that can  
outperform humans on several complex information-processing tasks and games—particularly those that require speed,  
perseverance, and a huge memory—since they never get tired, distracted, or take a break (Jee, [8.79]; Koch, [8.87];  
Lemley et al., [8.96])! Thanks to AI research, we now enjoy incredible advances, such as Google's Deep Learning and  
IBM's W atson, as well as personal assistants like Apple's Siri, Google Now, and Microsoft's Cortana. W ill AI someday  
match human thinking in flexibility, emotional capacity , and consciousness? Some have estimated that computers will  
surpass human brains around the year 2040 (van Paaschen, [8.186]). Time alone will tell!  
Before concluding that our brains (or AI machines) are the center of all cognition, it's important to note that our bodies  
also affect our thoughts, perceptions, attitudes, and judgments. Research shows that just holding a hot cup of coffee or  
being in a comfortably heated room warms our feelings toward strangers (Carpenter, 201 1; Williams & Bargh, 2008;  
Zhong & Leonardelli, 2008). In this chapter, we'll discuss how just taking a walk increases our creativity , and in Chapter  
12 you'll discover how cosmetic injections of Botox in the facial muscles tend to lift depression but also decrease  
empathy (Baumeister et al., [8.5]; Maasumi et al., [8.108]; Sifferlin, [8.161]). These examples of embodied cognition  
show us that our thought processes are not just centered in our brains, but are also shaped (“grounded”) by our bodily  
sensations and interactions with our environment.  
Cognitive Building Blocks  
Now that we know where thinking occurs, let's look at its basic components. Imagine yourself lying, relaxed, in the  
warm, gritty sand on an ocean beach. Do you see palms swaying in the wind? Can you smell the salty sea and taste the  
dried salt on your lips? Can you hear children playing in the surf? What you've just created is a mental image, a mental  
representation of a previously stored sensory experience, which includes visual, auditory , olfactory , tactile, motor , and  
gustatory imagery (McKellar, [8.1 13]). W e all have a mental space where we visualize and manipulate our sensory  
images. Interestingly , research shows that when we create mental images and thoughts about “healthy foods,” we tend to  
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consider them less filling and actually order larger portions and eat more (Suher et al., [8.171])! See the following Try  
This Y ourself to test your skills in manipulating mental images.  
Try This Y ourself Manipulating Mental Images  
How are the two yellow figures the same, and how are the two blue figures different? Solving this problem requires  
mental imagery and manipulation. Those of you who are familiar with the computer game Tetris might find this puzzle  
rather simple. Others might want to turn to Appendix B for an explanation.  
In addition to mental images, our thinking includes forming concepts, or mental representations of a group or category .  
Concepts can be concrete (like car and concert) or abstract (like intelligence and beauty). They are essential to thinking  
and communication because they simplify and organize information. Normally , when you see a new object or encounter  
a new situation, you relate it to your existing conceptual structure and categorize it according to where it fits. If you see a  
metal box with four wheels driving on the highway, you know it is a car , even if you've never seen that particular model  
before.  
How do we learn concepts? They develop through the environmental interactions of three major building blocks—  
prototypes, artificial concepts, and hierarchies (Ferguson & Casasola, [8.44]; McDaniel et al., [8.112]). See Figure8.1.  
•Prototypes When initially learning about birds, a young child develops a general concept based on a typical  
representative, or prototype(Figure8.1a), of birdafter a parent points out a number of examples. Once the child  
develops the prototype of a bird, he or she then is able to quickly classify all flying animals, such as this robin,  
correctly .  
•Artificial concepts W e create artificial(or formal) concepts(Figure8.1b) from logical rules or definitions. When an  
example doesn't quite fit the prototype, like a penguin, we must review our artificial concept of a bird: warm-blooded  
animals that fly , have wings and beaks, and lay eggs. Although this penguin doesn't fly , it has wings and a beak and  
lays eggs. So it must be a bird.  
•Hierarchies Creating hierarchies, or subcategories within broader concepts, helps us master new material more  
quickly and easily (Figure8.1c). Note, however , that we tend to begin with basic-level concepts (the middle row on  
the diagram) when we first learn something (Rosch, [8.144]). For example, a child develops the basic-level concept  
for birdbefore learning the higher-order concept animalor the lower-order concept r obin.  
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Figure 8.1 ConceptsWhen learning concepts, we most often use prototypes,  
artificial concepts, and hierarchies to simplify and categorize information.  
When we encounter a new type of bird, we fit it into our existing concept of  
a bird.  
Problem Solving  
Many years ago in Los Angeles, a 12-foot-high tractor-trailer reportedly got stuck under a bridge that was 6 inches too  
low . After hours of towing, tugging, and pushing, the police and transportation workers were stumped. Then a young boy  
happened by and asked, “Why don't you let some air out of the tires?” It was a simple, creative suggestion—and it  
worked.  
Like this young boy—and like Köhler's chimps that stacked boxes to reach bananas (Chapter 6)—we all sometimes solve  
problems with a sudden flash of insight. These “aha” moments and sudden bursts of understanding often lead to more  
accurate solutions than those found through logical reasoning and analysis (Salvi et al., [8.154]). However, insight is  
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somewhat unconscious and automatic, so it can't be rushed. When we're stumped on a problem, it sometimes helps to  
mentally set our problem aside for a while, in an incubation period, and the solution may then come to mind without  
further conscious thought.  
What can we do if we've struggled with a problem, waited, and still have no insightful solution? Some problems are  
solved through trial and err or. If you're stuck in a traffic jam, having trouble sleeping, or trying to lose weight, you may  
just try different solutions until you're successful—or give up.  
In contrast to such “hit or miss” approaches, a more generally effective problem-solving method involves a logical  
progression from a given state (the problem) to a goal state (the solution). This process usually has three steps:  
preparation, production, and evaluation(Bourne et al., [8.16]).  
Note in Step-by-Step Diagram 8.1 that during the preparation stage, we identify and separate relevant from irrelevant  
facts and define the ultimate goal. Then, during the production stage, we generate possible solutions, called hypotheses,  
by using algorithmsand heuristics. Algorithmsare logical, step-by-step procedures that if followed correctly will always  
lead to an eventual solution. But they are not practical in many situations. Heuristics, or simplified rules based on  
experience, are much faster but do not guarantee a solution. Finally , during the evaluation stage we judge the hypotheses  
generated during the production stage against the criteria established in the preparation stage.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 8.1 Three Steps to the Goal  
This Step-by-StepDiagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on  
quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
There are three stages of problem solving that help you attain a goal, such as moving to a new home.  
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Six Potential Barriers to Problem Solving  
As we've just seen, insight, trial and error, algorithms, and heuristics all help us solve problems in our daily life. In this  
section, we'll discuss six potential barriers to effective problem solving. Why do we say “potential”? It's because most of  
these factors have both positive and negative influences.  
1.Mental sets Why are some problems so difficult to solve? The reason may be that we often stick to problem-solving  
strategies that have worked in the past, called mental sets, rather than trying new , possibly more effective ones  
(Figure8.2).  
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Figure 8.2 The nine-dot  
problemCan you connect all  
nine dots without lifting your  
pencil or using more than  
four lines? If not, the reason  
may be that you're trying to  
use mental sets—problemsolving strategies that have  
worked well for you in the  
past. Try “thinking outside  
the box” and then compare  
your answer to the solution  
provided in Appendix B.  
2.Functional fixedness W e also sometimes fail to see solutions to our problems because we tend to view objects as  
functioning only in the usual or customary way—a phenomenon known as functional fixedness(Chrysikou et al.,  
[8.27]; Ness, [8.120]; W right et al., [8.201]). When a child uses sofa cushions to build a fort, or you use a table knife  
instead of a screwdriver to tighten a screw , you both have successfully avoided functional fixedness. Similarly , the  
individual who discovered a way to retrofit diesel engines to allow them to use discarded restaurant oil as fuel also  
overcame functional fixedness—and may become very wealthy! For practice with functional fixedness, see Figure  
8.3.  
Figure 8.3 Overcoming  
functional fixednessUsing only  
these supplies, can you mount the  
candle on a wall so that it can be  
lit in the normal way and without  
toppling over? The solution is  
provided in Appendix B.  
3.A vailability heuristic Every summer, we see repeated programs and “BREAKING NEWS” reports about shark  
attacks on unsuspecting swimmers, which lead viewers to a mistaken perception that such attacks are highly likely. In  
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reality , ocean-goers are 1,817 times more likely to drown than to die from a shark attack! How might this type of  
media coverage also increase prejudice against certain groups, such as viewing all Muslims as terrorists, or create  
unrealistic dreams and expectations of personal success (see Figure8.4)? These are just some of the many examples  
of the availability heuristic, in which we take a mental shortcut by estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event  
based on information that is most readily availablein our memories. In other words, we give greater credence to  
information and examples that readily spring to mind (Bruine de Bruin et al., [8.18]; Mase et al., [8.107]; Tversky &  
Kahneman, [8.182], [8.184]).  
Figure 8.4 The availability heuristic in  
actionThanks to repeated ads about lottery  
winners, you may overestimate your personal  
chances of winning the jackpot (the availability  
heuristic). Before you start buying lottery  
tickets, however , consider the fact that any one  
individual's odds of winning either the  
MegaMillions or Powerball jackpot are about  
175 million to one, whereas your chances of  
dying in a plane crash are 25 million to one and  
a car crash 5,000 to one (Amadeo, [8.1]).  
4.Representativeness heuristic When walking in the woods, have you ever immediately frozen or jumped away  
because you thought you saw a dangerous snake, when in fact it was just a curved stick on the ground? If so, this  
would be an example of the representativeness heuristic, in which we estimate the probability of an event based on  
how well something matches (or r epr esents) an existing prototype or stereotype in our minds (Bernard et al., [8.8];  
Lien & Y uan, [8.99]; Peteros & Maleyeff, [8.132]). W e all have a prototype of a snake in our minds, and the curved  
stick matches this prototype, which explains why this is also an example of the availability heuristic. While walking  
in the woods, you're primed to look out for snakes, and the sight of the curved stick brings immediate images of a  
snake to your mind.  
5.Confirmation bias Are you wondering why the U.S. Congress can't seem to solve serious national problems, like  
our deteriorating bridges and highways? Or why we can't resolve ongoing disputes with our roommates or spouses?  
It may be that we too often seek confirmation for our preexisting positions or beliefs and tend to ignore or discount  
contradictory evidence. As discussed in Chapters 1 and 4, this type of faulty thinking and barrier to problem solving  
is known as the confirmation bias(Dibbets & Meesters, [8.35]; Nickerson, [8.122]; W ebb et al., [8.192]). Like  
gamblers who keep putting coins into slot machines, we all have preexisting beliefs and biases that may lead us to  
focus only on our “hits” and ignore our “misses.” T o make matters worse, the confirmation bias is closely related to  
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what's called belief perseverance—our tendency to stick to our positions and beliefs even when we hear contrary  
information.  
Real-world examples of the confirmation bias (coupled with belief perseverance) are all around us—people who  
believe (or don't believe) that climate change is caused by human factors, that gun control can (or cannot) save lives,  
and that immigration helps (or hurts) our economy . Perhaps one of the most dramatic examples occurred during the  
2016 United States presidential election. Do you recall the widespread shock in the United States and around the  
world when Donald Trump, the Republican nominee, won the election and not the widely presumed winner, Hillary  
Clinton? Can you see how both voters and observers undoubtedly sought out polls that supported their favored  
candidate and ignored or discounted those that provided contradictory information?  
6.Cognitive offloading What do you do when you're lost in a new area of town, or you want to know the definition of  
a new word? Most of us immediately pull out our smartphones and ask for help. So it's disturbing to learn that our  
increasing reliance on the Internet and online resources may be negatively affecting our thought processes for  
problem solving, recall, and general learning (Storm et al., [8.169]). In the study that gave rise to these findings,  
participants were asked to answer challenging trivia questions. Some participants were allowed to use Google,  
whereas the others used only their memory. Next they were allowed to use either method to answer easier questions.  
The researchers found that participants who had used Google for the challenging questions were significantly more  
likely to use it again, and to use it more quickly . More surprising, 30% of these Google users failed to even attempt to  
answer a single simple question from memory .  
The general idea of cognitive offloadingis that rather than cognitively processing entirely in our head, we're likely to  
“offload” information and problem solving out into the world via online resources or just writing down the  
information (Gilbert, [8.56]; Risko & Dunn, 2015). Given that our use of and reliance on cognitively offloading will  
undoubtedly increase over time, some researchers conclude that our memory and problem-solving abilities will suffer  
accordingly . Does this mean that if we “don't use it, we lose it”? What do you think?  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessStrategies for Better Pr oblem Solving  
Are you feeling overwhelmed by all the potential barriers to problem solving? If so, keep in mind that some of these  
cognitive strategies, such as the availability and representativeness heuristics, provide mental shortcuts that are generally  
far more likely to help than to hurt us (Pohl et al., [8.135]). They allow immediate “inferences that are fast, frugal, and  
accurate” (T odd & Gigerenzer, [8.179], p. 736). If you note that several houses on your street have safety bars on their  
windows, you might be motivated to add your own safety bars and thereby decrease your chances of being burglarized.  
Likewise, if you're hiking in an area with dangerous snakes, and you see a curved stick on the ground, it's smart to  
initially freeze or jump away . When faced with an immediate decision, we often don't have time to investigate all the  
options. W e need to make quick decisions based on the currently available information.  
What about other, long-term decisions, such as choosing your college major and your future career? How can you use the  
material we've been discussing to improve your personal success? Y ou obviously can't try all possible options using  
algorithms to solve your career-planning problems. Instead, the three heuristics presented in T able8.1 may help focus  
your search and desired outcomes.  
T able8.1Three Problem-Solving Heuristics and Y our Career  
ProblemSolving  
Heuristics  
Description Example  
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ProblemSolving  
Heuristics  
Description Example  
Working  
backward  
Starts with the solution, a known  
condition, and works backward  
through the problem. Once the  
search has revealed the steps to be  
taken, the problem is solved.  
Deciding you want to be an experimental psychologist, you ask your  
psychology professor to recommend graduate programs at various  
colleges and universities. Then you contact these institutions for  
information on their academic requirements and admission policies. Next,  
you adapt your current college courses to fit those institutional  
requirements and policies.  
Means–  
end  
analysis  
Problem solver determines what  
measures would reduce the  
difference between the existing,  
given state and the end goal. Once  
the means to reach the goal are  
determined, the problem is solved.  
Y ou know you need a high GP A to get into a good graduate school for  
experimental psychology . Therefore, you ask your professors for study  
suggestions and interview several “A” students to compare their study  
habits to your own. Y ou then determine the specific means (the number of  
hours and study techniques) required to meet your end goal of a high  
GP A.  
Creating  
subgoals  
Large, complex problems are  
broken down into a series of small  
subgoals. These subgoals then serve  
as a series of stepping stones, which  
can be taken one at a time to reach  
the end goal.  
Getting a good grade in many college courses requires subgoals, like  
writing a successful term paper. T o do this, you first choose a topic, and  
then go to the library and Internet to locate information related to that  
topic. Once you have the information, you organize it, create an outline,  
write the paper, review the paper , rewrite, rewrite again, and then submit  
the final paper , on or before the due date.  
Creativity  
Effective philanthropy requir es a lot of time and creativity—the same kind of focus and skills that building a business  
r equir es.  
—Bill Gates  
Everyone exhibits a certain amount of creativity in some aspects of life. Even when doing ordinary tasks, like planning  
an afternoon of errands, you are being somewhat creative. Similarly , if you've ever used a plastic garbage bag as a  
temporary rain jacket, or placed a thick college textbook on a chair as a booster seat for a child, you've found creative  
solutions to problems.  
How would psychologists operationally define creativity? Conceptions of creativity are obviously personal and  
influenced by culture, but most agree that a creative solution or performance generally produces original, appropriate,  
and valued outcomes in a novel way . Three characteristics are generally associated with creativity: originality, fluency,  
and flexibility. Nikola T esla and his numerous technological developments offer a prime example of each of these  
characteristics (T able8.2).  
T able8.2Three Elements of Creative Thinking  
Explanations Nikola T esla Examples  
Originality  
Seeing unique or  
different solutions to a  
problem  
After noting the limitations of Thomas Edison's direct current (DC) transmission  
system, T esla devised a means of transmitting power via an alternating current  
(AC), which greatly reduced power loss over long distances.  
Fluency  
Generating a large  
number of possible  
solutions  
T esla developed numerous alternating current (AC) systems, including generators,  
motors, and transformers.  
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Explanations Nikola T esla Examples  
Flexibility  
Shifting with ease from  
one type of problemsolving strategy to  
another  
T esla was a prolific inventor who held over 300 patents worldwide. He played a key  
role in developing fluorescent bulbs, neon signs, X-rays, the radio, lasers, remote  
controls, robotics, and even the technology used in modern cell phones.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Can you identify which of the three characteristics of creativity (originality, fluency , or flexibility) best explains your  
personal experiences with being creative?  
2\.   
Creativity is usually associated with art, poetry, and the like. What are other areas in which creativity should be highly  
valued?  
Interestingly , research shows that creative people are judged to be more sexually attractive than less creative individuals  
(Geher & Kaufman, [8.53]; Lange & Euler , [8.95]). As a case in point, a survey of 815 undergraduates found that Bill  
Gates would be considered sexy based on his applied/technological creativity, whereas others might be considered sexy  
based on their ornamental/aesthetic or everyday/domestic creativity (Kaufman et al., [8.81]).  
How do we measure creativity? Most tests focus on divergent thinking, a type of thinking in which we develop many  
possibilities from a single starting point (Palmiero et al., [8.128]; van de Kamp et al., [8.185]). Divergent thinking is  
open-ended and focused on generating multiple, novel solutions. Y ou're using divergent thinking when you're  
brainstorming or thinking of multiple ways to remodel your home. Convergent thinkingis the opposite of divergent  
thinking. Instead of looking for multiple solutions, it looks for the one, single best answer. Y ou're using convergent  
thinking when you're searching for the answer to a math problem or a multiple-choice question.  
Although divergent thinking and convergent thinking are very different, we generally use both to successfully problem  
solve. “Thinking outside the box” and generating many ideas (divergent thinking) increase the odds of finding a solution.  
But you also need convergent thinking to bring all the differing ideas together to identify (or convergeon) the single best  
solution.  
As you can see, creative, divergent thinking is highly desirable, and it helps us avoid some of the barriers to problem  
solving, such as functional fixedness. Unfortunately , this type of thinking is seldom emphasized in formal education.  
Furthermore, most people have a narrow , limited idea of creativity—thinking it applies only to artists and creative  
writers. However, as mentioned before, creativity consists of three major characteristics—originality , fluency , and  
flexibility—that can apply to any of us.  
Psychologists have developed several tests for creativity. For example, the Unusual Uses T est requires you to think of as  
many uses as possible for an object, such as a brick. In the Anagrams Test, you're asked to reorder the letters in a word to  
make as many new words as possible. To test your overall creativity , see the following T ry This Y ourself feature.  
Try This Y ourself Are Y ou Creative?  
•Find 10 coins and arrange them in the configuration shown here. By moving only 2 coins, form two rows, each  
containing 6 coins. The solution is provided in Appendix B.  
•In five minutes, see how many words you can make using the letters in the word hippopotamus.  
•In five minutes, list all the things you can do with a paper clip.  
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How can we increase general creativity? For children, outdoor activities—such as climbing, jumping, and exploring—  
have a positive effect (Brussoni et al., [8.19]). See Figure8.5. For adults, even a simple walk will increase creativity .  
This was documented by an experiment that asked participants to think about alternative ways of using a common object  
(Oppezzo & Schwartz, [8.126]). For the word “button,” a person might say , “as a doorknob on a dollhouse.” Half the  
participants did this task while sitting at a desk facing a blank wall. The other half did it while walking on a treadmill  
facing a blank wall. Next, researchers repeated the study with participants walking outside and participants sitting at a  
desk outdoors, and in both conditions the walkers outperformed the sitters in creativity.  
Figure 8.5 Children and  
creativityHow do outdoor  
activities increase creativity?  
Unstructured free playtime (both  
indoors and outdoors) allows safe  
practice for skills necessary for  
adult activities, which serves as  
an evolutionary advantage to both  
human and nonhuman animals  
(Holmes et al., [8.72]; Kuczaj,  
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[8.90]; T sai, [8.181]). It also  
appears to build the skills  
essential to success in the arts,  
entrepreneurship, and even fields  
like science and engineering.  
What are the obvious take-home messages? If you're a parent, teacher, or child's caregiver , this research on the value of  
outdoor activities and unstructured free playtime is particularly important given the increasing pressure on parents and  
schools to emphasize science, math, and other structured activities. In your own life, carve out time for play the next time  
you need to be creative—or simply take a walk!  
If you'd like further suggestions for increasing your own creativity , researchers have found that it requires the coming  
together of at least seven interrelated resources, as shown in T able8.3. Can you think of ways to apply some or all of this  
information to your own life?  
T able8.3Resources of Creative People  
Affective  
processes  
Emotional intelligence  
and joy in creative  
expression  
Which of these seven resources do you think best  
explains artist V incent V an Gogh's great creativity?  
Although he reportedly only sold one painting in his  
lifetime, V an Gogh's portrait of Dr . Gachetis one of the  
10 most expensive paintings in history , selling for  
$82.5 million dollars in 1990.  
Intellectual  
ability  
Enough intelligence to  
see problems in a new  
light  
Knowledge  
Sufficient basic  
knowledge of the  
problem to effectively  
evaluate possible  
solutions  
Thinking  
style  
Novel ideas, divergent  
thinking, and ability to  
distinguish between the  
worthy and worthless  
Personality  
Conscientiousness,  
openness, and  
willingness to grow and  
change, take risks, and  
work to overcome  
obstacles  
Motivation  
Sufficient motivation to  
accomplish the task and  
more internal than  
external motivation  
Environment  
An environment that  
supports creativity  
Sources:Chrysikou et al., [8.27]; Crilly , [8.31]; How Many Paintings, [8.74]; Li et al., [8.103]; Sternberg, [8.167],  
[8.168]; van de kamp et al., [8.185].  
So far we've only presented the positive side of creativity . But what about the famous stories of creative geniuses who  
suffer from psychological disorders? Are these based on myths or on reality? For more information on this controversial  
topic, see the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Is Creativity Linked with Psychological Disorders?  
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What do you picture when you think of a creative genius? Thanks to movies, television, and novels, many people share  
the stereotypical image of an eccentric inventor or deranged artist, like the lead ballerina in the film Black Swan,  
portrayed by Natalie Portman (see the photo).  
Thinking back to Chapter 1 and the mistaken belief that a full moon leads to more crime, can you see how this might be a  
simple illusory correlation—a mistaken perception that a relationship exists between two variables when no such  
relationship actually exists?  
Or could there be small kernel of truth to the stereotyped link between creativity and psychological disorders?  
Researchers interested in this question analyzed years of stored data from more than a million people, including their  
professions, whether they had ever been diagnosed and treated for a psychological disorder, and, if so, what type of  
disorder (Kyaga et al., [8.93]). The researchers found that individuals in generally creative professions (scientific or  
artistic) were no more likely to suffer from most psychiatric disorders than those in other professions. However, one  
illness, bipolar disorder—which is characterized by extreme high and low mood swings (Chapter 14)—wasfound to be  
significantly more common in artists and scientists, and particularly in authors.  
But could an individual's choice of occupation have confounded these results (Patra & Balhara, [8.129]; Rothenberg,  
[8.147])? As you'll discover in Chapter 14, there is a strong genetic component in bipolar disorders. Furthermore, we're  
all much more likely to enter a profession similar to that of our parents because of familiarity, access, and modeling. So  
children of artists, scientists, and authors are more likely to choose the same professions as their parents. Might it be that  
the modest link between creativity and bipolar disorder is actually due to kinship, and the profession is incidental?  
What do you think? How would you explain this intriguing association between certain types of creativity and bipolar  
disorder? If there is a true link, does the manic phase increase the energy levels of artists, scientists, and authors, giving  
them greater access to creative ideas than they would otherwise have? Or does it interfere with their overall output?  
If you find these questions fascinating and the lack of answers frustrating, you may be the perfect candidate for a career  
as a research psychologist. Recall from Chapter 1 that the scientific method is circular and never-ending—but guaranteed  
to excite!  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Kyaga et al., [8.93]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or  
experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not  
randomly assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elationalresearch, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
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Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented  
in most textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers  
to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Retrieval Practice 8.1 Thinking  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button  
or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly define cognition.  
2\.   
________is a logical step-by-step procedure that, if followed, will always eventually solve the problem.  
a. An algorithm  
b. A problem-solving set  
c. A heuristic  
d. Brainstorming  
3\.   
Rosa is shopping in a new supermarket and wants to find a standard type of mustard. Which problem-solving strategy  
would be most efficient?  
a. algorithm  
b. heuristic  
c. instinct  
d. mental set  
4\.   
________is a fixed-thinking approach to problem solving that only sees solutions that have worked in the past.  
a. Problem-solving set  
b. Functional fixedness  
c. Mental set  
d. Incubation  
5\.   
________is the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valued outcomes in a novel way .  
a. Problem solving  
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b. Functional flexibility  
c. Incubation  
d. Creativity  
Connections Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 14 (Psychological Disorders), you'll learn more about how attitudes toward mental illness develop. Explain  
how the availability heuristic might influence your thoughts and feelings about whether people with mental illness are  
violent or dangerous.  
.  
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Print this page  
8.2 Language  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key characteristics and theories of language.  
•Identifylanguage and its major building blocks.  
•Describethe prominent theories of language and thinking and how they interact.  
•Discussthe major stages of language development, including the language acquisition device (LAD).  
•Reviewthe evidence and controversy surrounding nonhuman animals' acquisition and use of language.  
Languageis critical to thinking because it enables us to mentally manipulate symbols, thereby expanding our thinking. Whether it's spoken, written,  
or signed, language also allows us to communicate our thoughts, ideas, and feelings (Harley, [8.66]; Jandt, [8.78]).  
Language Characteristics  
T o produce language, we first build words using phonemes[FO-neems] and morphemes[MOR-feems]. Then we string words into sentences using  
rules of grammar, including syntaxand semantics(Figure8.6).  
Figure 8.6 The three major building blocks of language  
What happens in our brains when we produce and comprehend language? Language, like our thought processes, is both localized and distributed  
throughout our brains (Figure8.7). For example, the amygdala is active when we engage in a special type of language—cursing or swearing. Why?  
Recall from Chapter 2 that the amygdala is linked to emotions, especially fear and rage. So it's logical that the brain regions activated by swearing or  
hearing swear words would be the same as those for fear and aggression.  
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Figure 8.7 Language and the brainAs shown in the PET scan above, repeating words increases activity (the  
yellow and red colors) in Broca's area (left) and W ernicke's area (right), as well as a motor region responsible for  
pronouncing words (reddish area at the top).  
As shown in Figure 8.7, additional parts of the brain are involved in language, including Broca's area(which is responsible for speech generation)  
and W ernicke's area(which controls language comprehension). Keep in mind that several additional areas of the brain, not shown on this figure, are  
activated during different types of language generation and listening.  
How do we know which parts of the brain are involved with language? Scientists can track brain activity through a positron emission tomography  
(PET) scan. Injection of the radioactive isotope oxygen-15 into the bloodstream of the participant makes areas of the brain with high metabolic  
activity “light up” in red and orange on the scan (see again Figure 8.7).  
Language Theories  
Does the fact that you speak English instead of German—or Chinese instead of Swahili—determine how you reason, think, and perceive the world?  
Linguist Benjamin Whorf ([8.197]) believed so. As evidence for his linguistic r elativity hypothesis, Whorf offered a now classic example: Because  
Inuits (previously known as Eskimos) supposedly have many words for snow (apikakfor “first snow falling,” pukakfor “snow for drinking water ,”  
and so on), they can reportedly perceive and think about snow differently from English speakers, who have only one word—snow.  
Though intriguing, Whorf's hypothesis has not fared well. He apparently exaggerated the number of Inuit words for snow (Pullum, [8.137]) and  
ignored the fact that English speakers have a number of terms to describe various forms of snow , such as slush, sleet, hard pack, and powder. Other  
research has directly contradicted Whorf's theory . Eleanor Rosch ([8.145]) found that although people of the Dani tribe in New Guinea possess only  
two color names—one indicating cool, dark colors, and the other describing warm, bright colors—they discriminate among multiple hues as well as  
English speakers do.  
Whorf apparently was mistaken in his belief that language determinesthought. But there is no doubt that language influencesthought (Bylund &  
Athanasopoulos, [8.20]; Y ang, [8.203]; Zhong et al., [8.204]). For example, a university cafeteria increased vegetable consumption by 25% just by  
adding flavorful, exciting, and indulgent descriptors, like “rich, buttery , roasted sweet corn” (T urnwald et al., [8.183]). In addition, people who speak  
multiple languages report that the language they're currently using affects their sense of self and how they think about events (Berry et al., [8.9]; Lai  
& Narasimhan, [8.94]). In support of this view, people who speak both Chinese and English report that they tend to conform to Chinese cultural  
norms when speaking Chinese and to W estern norms when speaking English. Interestingly , research shows that speaking multiple languages, or even  
just learning one new language, offers a wide range of benefits that might make you smarter, including increased attention, better communication  
skills, and more gray matter in key brain regions (Bak et al., [8.4]; Fan et al., [8.42]; Olulade et al., [8.125]). For additional insights on language  
effects, see Figure8.8.  
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Figure 8.8 Language distortionsOur  
words clearly influence the thinking  
of those who hear them. That's why  
companies avoid firingemployees.  
Instead, they're outplacedor  
nonrenewed. And the military uses  
terms like preemptive striketo cover  
the fact that they attacked first and  
tactical r edeploymentto refer to a  
retreat. Similarly , the dentist who shot  
the African lion known as Cecil  
apologized for this act by saying, “I  
had no idea the lion I took was a  
known, local favorite.” But he didn't  
“take” the lion. He killed it!  
Language Development  
Although children's language development varies in timing, virtually all children follow a similar sequence (see T able8.4). The various stages  
within this table are believed to be universal, meaning that all children progress through similar stages regardless of the culture they're born into or  
what language(s) they ultimately learn to speak.  
T able8.4Language Acquisition  
Birth to 12 Months  
Features Examples  
Crying (reflexive in newborns) becomes more purposeful hunger cry , anger cry , and pain cry  
Cooing (vowel-like sounds) at 2–3 months “ooooh,” “aaaah”  
Babbling (consonants added) at 4–6 months “bahbahbah,” “dahdahdah”  
12 Months to 2 Y ears  
Features Examples  
Babbling resembles language of the environment, and child understands that sounds  
relate to meaning  
“mama,” “da da”  
Speech consists of one-word utterances “juice,” “up”  
Expressive ability more than doubles once words are joined into short phrases “daddy milk,” “no night-night!”  
Overextension (using words to include objects that do not fit the word's meaning)  
all men = “daddy ,” all furry animals  
= “doggy”  
2 Y ears to 5 Y ears  
Features Examples  
T elegraphic speech (like telegrams, omits nonessential connecting words)  
“Me want cookie”  
“Grandma go bye-bye?”  
V ocabulary increases at a phenomenal rate  
Child acquires a wide variety of grammar rules  
adding –edfor past tense, adding s to  
form plurals  
Overgeneralization (applying basic rules of grammar even to cases that are exceptions  
to the rule)—see the Study T ip  
“I goed to the zoo,” “two mans”  
Prelinguistic Stage  
From birth, a child communicates through facial expressions, eye contact, and body gestures (Figure8.9). Babies only hours old begin to “teach”  
their caregivers when and how they want to be held, fed, and played with. Babies even start to learn language before they are born. Researchers in  
one study played sounds from two different languages—English and Swedish—for babies at hospitals in both the United States and Sweden shortly  
after birth (Moon et al., [8.118]). These babies were given special pacifiers that were hooked up to a computer, and the more times they sucked on the  
pacifier, the more times they heard the sounds. Half the babies heard sounds from the language they'd been exposed to in utero, whereas the others  
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heard sounds from a different language. In both countries, the babies who heard the foreign sounds sucked more frequently than those who heard  
sounds from their native language, suggesting that babies have already become familiar—through listening to their mother's voice—with the sounds  
in their native language and are now more interested in hearing novel sounds.  
Study Tip  
Are you having difficulty differentiating between overextension and overgeneralization? Remember the “g” in overgeneralize as a cue that this term  
applies to problems with grammar .  
Figure 8.9 Can you  
identify this emotion?  
Infants as young as 2.5  
months can nonverbally  
express emotions, such as  
joy , surprise, or anger .  
Regarding infant cries, have you ever wondered why a crying baby on a plane is so stressful for all passengers? Thanks to evolution, it appears that  
crying is a primitive behavior shared by most mammals that plays a crucial role in infant survival (Darwin, [8.32]; Raine, [8.139]). In fact, the sounds  
of infant mammals are highly similar, which may explain why both children and adults respond to the cries of kittens and puppies and why deer will  
respond to the cries of infant humans, seals, and cats (Lingle & Riede, [8.100]).  
Why is it so particularly hard to ignore these cries? Research has shown that infant cries modulate our hormone levels and activate specific areas of  
our brains responsible for attention and empathy (Quintana et al., [8.138]; Reim et al., 2011; Swain & Ho, [8.173]). Furthermore, all mammals tend  
to cry primarily when they're upset, in pain, or alone, with a pitch and sound specifically designed to attract attention and responses from their  
caregivers (Lingle et al., [8.101]). Although some parents seem to be able to distinguish between their baby's different cries, the overall function of  
crying is to signal infant distress. This distress signal, in turn, creates distress and discomfort in others, leading to a helping response (Esposito et al.,  
[8.41]; Lin et al., [8.102]). In short, everyone on the plane wants someone to comfort and quiet the crying baby!  
Linguistic Stage  
After the prelinguistic stage, infants quickly move toward full language acquisition (see again Table 8.4). By age 5, most children have mastered  
basic grammar and typically use about 2,000 words (a level of mastery considered adequate for getting by in any given culture). Past this point,  
vocabulary and grammar gradually improve throughout life (Levey , [8.98]; Oller et al., [8.124]).  
Theories of Language Development  
Some theorists believe that language capability is innate, primarily a matter of maturation. Noam Chomsky ([8.25], [8.26]) suggests that children are  
“prewired” with a neurological ability within the brain, known as a language acquisition device (LAD), that enables them to analyze language and to  
extract the basic rules of grammar . This mechanism needs only minimal exposure to adult speech to unlock its potential. As evidence for this nativist  
position, Chomsky observes that children everywhere progress through the same stages of language development at about the same ages. He also  
notes that babbling is the same in all languages and that deaf babies babble just like hearing babies.  
Nurturistsargue that the nativist position doesn't fully explain individual differences in language development. They hold that children learn  
language through a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation. For example, parents smile and encourage any vocalizations from a very  
young infant. Later, they respond even more enthusiastically when the infant babbles “mama” or “dada.” In this way , parents unknowingly use  
shaping(Chapter 6) to help babies learn language. Unfortunately , researchers have found a wide variability in how much parents talk or read to their  
children, and low levels of these activities can lead to serious gaps in their language development (Hirsh-Pasek et al., [8.68]; Hutton et al., [8.76];  
Ockerman, [8.123]).  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Can Y our Nonverbal Language Reveal Y our Roots?  
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Now that we've reviewed the characteristics and theories of language and how it develops, let's give some thought to nonverbal language—  
communication through gestures, facial expressions, and other nonverbal means. Specifically, we're going to explore some of the cultural factors  
behind nonverbal language—particularly the power of accents. Just as an Irish brogue or a Minnesota lilt betrays one's background, facial  
expressions and body language can reveal our cultural origins. These “nonverbal accents” also convey information about mental, social, and physical  
states (Rosenberg et al., [8.146]).  
Nonverbal language and behavior are sometimes considered to be universal—wherever you go, a groan sounds like a groan and a smile looks like a  
smile. However , a growing body of research suggests that where we live shapes both how we display emotion and how we perceive it in others. In  
one study , researchers found that American volunteers could distinguish American from Australian faces when the faces were photographed smiling,  
but not when they were photographed with neutral expressions (Marsh et al., 2007). In addition, the way Americans and Australians walk or wave in  
greeting not only telegraphs their nationality but also apparently triggers stereotypes about the two groups. In this particular study, Americans were  
judged more dominant (think, “Carry a big stick”) and Australians more likable (think, “G'day , mate!”).  
What explains cultural variations in nonverbal communication? A recent study suggests that some differences may be the result of historical  
heterogeneity—meaning the degree to which a country's present-day population descended from migrants who came from many countries over a  
period of 500 years (Rychlowska et al., 2015). T o test this hypothesis, the researchers carefully analyzed existing data on cultural rules for displaying  
emotions from 32 countries (Matsumoto et al., 2008). As predicted, countries with less migration tended to be less expressive. Why? The researchers  
suggest that over time homogeneous countries—those with less diversity—develop stronger display rules for how emotions should be openly  
expressed. In relatively homogeneous Japan, for instance, when subordinates are upset around their bosses, they're likely to conceal these feelings  
with smiles. In countries with a more diverse past, though, people needed to beef up their facial expressions, perhaps to overcome cultural and  
language barriers.  
In their follow-up research, the team zeroed in on a particular kind of facial expression: the smile (Rychlowska et al., 2015). They conducted a new  
study of 726 people in nine countries, including the United States, Japan, and France. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding  
cultural rules for emotional expression. But in this case, they were asked to consider what constituted a good reason for someone else to smile, such  
as that he or she “is a happy person,” “wants to sell you something,” and “feels inferior to you.” The participants rated each reason to smile on a  
scale from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. The researchers then compared the results for each country with their migration numbers. In further  
support of their initial hypothesis, countries with less migration and less diversity thought smiles were related to the social hierarchy—people smile  
because they “feel inferior to you.” In contrast, countries with greater and more diverse immigration over the past 500 years were more likely to  
interpret smiles as friendly gestures.  
Other research suggests that people from different cultures are attuned to different nonverbal cues. Americans, who tend to express emotion overtly ,  
look to the mouth to interpret others' true feelings (Y uki et al., 2007). However, Japanese, who tend to be more emotionally guarded, give greater  
weight to the eyes, which are less easily controlled. “These studies show both that people can be sensitive to cultural cues that they are barely aware  
of, and also that their own cultural norms can lead them astray ,” comments Judith Hall, who studies nonverbal communication at Northeastern  
University . “Americans who think the Japanese are unexpressive mistake subtlety for lack of expression. These Americans would misjudge facial  
cues that Japanese might be very successful at interpreting.” Do you recognize how such misjudgments can lead to cross-cultural misunderstandings?  
And why improving our awareness of these differences might go a long way toward improving cross-cultural interactions.  
Source: Parts of this feature were originally published in Scientific American Mind, August/September 2007, p. 13. Reprinted with permission of  
author , Siri Carpenter .  
Language and Other Species  
Can human animals talk with nonhuman animals? Without question, nonhuman animals communicate. They regularly send warnings, signal sexual  
interest, share locations of food sources, and so on. But can nonhuman animals master the complexity of human language? Since the 1930s, many  
language studies have attempted to answer this question by probing the language abilities of chimpanzees, gorillas, and other animals (Hoeschele &  
Fitch, [8.70]; Scott-Phillips, [8.159]; Zuberbühler, [8.205]).  
One of the most successful early studies was conducted by Beatrice and Allen Gardner ([8.50]), who recognized chimpanzees' manual dexterity and  
ability to imitate gestures. The Gardners used American Sign Language (ASL) with a chimp named W ashoe. By the time W ashoe was 4 years old,  
she had learned 132 signs and was able to combine them into simple sentences such as “Hurry , gimme toothbrush” and “Please tickle more.” The  
famous gorilla Koko also uses ASL to communicate; she reportedly uses more than 1,000 signs (Figure8.10).  
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Figure 8.10 Koko learning sign languageIn  
this photo, Koko is signaling to her mentor , 28-year-old graduate student Penny Patterson, that  
she wants to listen to the phone. She hasn't yet  
learned the ASL sign for phone, but she clearly  
understands the relationship between gestures  
and communication.  
In another well-known study , a chimp named Lana learned to use symbols on a computer to get things she wanted, such as food, a drink, and a tickle  
from her trainers, and to have her curtains opened (Rumbaugh et al., [8.150]). See Figure8.11.  
Figure 8.11 Computer-aided communicationApes lack the  
necessary anatomical structures to vocalize the way humans  
do. For this reason, language research with chimps and  
gorillas has focused on teaching the animals to use sign  
language or to “speak” by pointing to symbols on a keyboard.  
Do you think this amounts to using language the same way  
humans do?  
Dolphins also are often the subject of interesting language research (see cartoon) (Kuczaj et al., [8.91]; Pack, [8.127]). Communication with dolphins  
is typically conducted with hand signals or audible commands transmitted through an underwater speaker system. In one typical study, trainers gave  
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dolphins commands made up of two- to five-word sentences, such as “Big ball—square—return,” which meant that they should go get the big ball,  
put it in the floating square, and return to the trainer (Herman et al., [8.67]). By varying the syntax (the order of the words) and specific content of the  
commands, the researchers showed that dolphins are sensitive to these aspects of language.  
Scientists disagree about how to interpret the findings on chimps, apes, and dolphins. Most believe nonhuman animals definitely communicate, but  
that they're not using true language because they don't convey subtle meanings, use language creatively , or communicate at an abstract level. Other  
critics propose that these animals do not truly understand language but are simply operantly conditioned (Chapter 6) to imitate symbols to receive  
rewards. Finally , many language scientists contend that data regarding animal language has not always been well documented (Beran et al., [8.7];  
Savage-Rumbaugh, [8.156]; T errace, [8.177]).  
Proponents of animal language respond that apes can use language creatively and have even coined some words of their own. Koko supposedly  
signed “finger bracelet” to describe a ring and “eye hat” to describe a mask (Patterson & Linden, [8.130]). Proponents also argue that, as  
demonstrated by the dolphin studies, animals can be taught to understand basic rules of sentence structure. As you can see, the jury is still out on  
whether nonh uman animals use “true” language or not. Stay tuned!  
Retrieval Practice 8.2 Language  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B,  
will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly explain how we first produce language.  
2\.   
Which rule of English is violated by this sentence? Going to college I really enjoy.  
a. deep structure  
b. phonemic structure  
c. semantics  
d. syntax  
3\.   
“I goed to the zoo” and “I hurt my foots” are examples of ________.  
a. prelinguistic verbalizations  
b. overexposure to adult “baby talk”  
c. overgeneralization  
d. Noam Chomsky's theory of language acquisition  
4\.   
According to Chomsky , the innate mechanism that enables a child to analyze language is known as a(n) ________.  
a. telegraphic understanding device (TUD)  
b. language acquisition device (LAD)  
c. language and grammar translator (LGT)  
d. overgeneralized neural net (ONN)  
5\.   
Some researchers believe nonhuman animals are not using true language because they don't ________.  
a. convey subtle meanings  
b. use language creatively  
c. communicate at an abstract level  
d. do any of these things  
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Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 6 (Learning), you studied several forms of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Explain how  
each type of learning might be used in learning a language.  
.  
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8.3 Intelligence  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the nature and measurement of intelligence.  
•Defineintelligence.  
•Comparethe different forms and theories of intelligence.  
•Describehow intelligence is measured and the groups that fall at the extremes.  
I don't think ther e's anything unique about human intelligence. All the neurons in the brain that make up  
perceptions and emotions operate in a binary fashion.  
—Bill Gates  
Many people equate intelligence with “book smarts.” For others, the definition of intelligence depends on the  
characteristics and skills that are valued in a particular social group or culture (Goldstein et al., [8.57]; Plucker &  
Esping, [8.134]; Suzuki et al., [8.172]). As a case in point, the Mandarin word that corresponds most closely to the  
word intelligenceis a character meaning “good brain and talented” (Matsumoto, [8.111]). In other cultures,  
intelligence is associated with traits like imitation, effort, and social responsibility (Keats, [8.83]). An experiment  
carried out in seven countries even found that smiling versus non-smiling affected judgments of intelligence (Krys  
et al., [8.89]). Interestingly , German respondents perceived smiling individuals as being more intelligent, whereas  
Chinese participants judged smilers as less intelligent.  
Even among W estern psychologists there is considerable debate over the definition of intelligence. In this  
discussion, we rely on a formal definition of intelligence—the global capacity to think rationally , act purposefully ,  
profit from experience, and deal effectively with the environment(W echsler, [8.193], [8.194]). See the Study T ip.  
Study Tip  
Intelligence is not a thing. It has no mass. It occupies no space. There are no specific sites within the brain where  
intelligence resides. When people talk about intelligence as though it were a concrete, tangible object, they commit  
an error in reasoning (known as reification). Like consciousness and memory , intelligence is a hypothetical,  
abstract construct.  
The Nature of Intelligence  
In the 1920s, British psychologist Charles Spearman first observed that high scores on separate tests of mental  
abilities tend to correlate with each other . Spearman ([8.162]) thus proposed that intelligence is a single factor,  
which he termed general intelligence (g). He believed that gunderlies all intellectual behavior, including reasoning,  
solving problems, and performing well in all areas of cognition. Spearman's work laid the foundations for today's  
standardized intelligence tests (Bouchard, [8.13]; Cooper, [8.30]; W oodley of Menie & Madison, [8.199]).  
About a decade later, L. L. Thurstone ([8.178]) proposed seven primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension,  
word fluency , numerical fluency , spatial visualization, associative memory , perceptual speed, and reasoning. J. P .  
Guilford ([8.64]) later expanded this number, proposing that as many as 120 factors are involved in the structure of  
intelligence.  
Around the same time, Raymond Cattell ([8.22], [8.23]) reanalyzed Thurstone's data and argued against the idea of  
multiple intelligences. He believed that two subtypes of gexist:  
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•Fluid intelligence (gf)refers to the ability to think speedily and abstractly and to solve novel problems. Fluid  
intelligence is relatively independent of education and experience, and like most biological capacities, it  
declines with age (Gazes et al., [8.52]; Gerstorf et al., [8.54]; Klein et al., [8.86]).  
•Crystallized intelligence (gc)refers to the store of knowledge and skills gained through experience and  
education (Santos, [8.155]; Sternberg, [8.167], [8.168]). Crystallized intelligence tends to increase over the life  
span.  
Measuring Intelligence  
Different IQ tests approach the measurement of intelligence from different perspectives. However , most are  
designed to predict grades in school. Let's look at the most commonly used IQ tests.  
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scaleis loosely based on the first IQ tests developed in France around the turn of  
the twentieth century by Alfred Binet. In the United States, Lewis T erman ([8.174]) developed the Stanford-Binet  
(at Stanford University) to test the intellectual ability of U.S.-born children ages 3 to 16. The test is revised  
periodically—most recently in 2003. The test is administered individually and consists of such tasks as copying  
geometric designs, identifying similarities, and repeating number sequences.  
After administering the individual test to a large number of people, researchers discovered that their scores  
typically are distributed in a normal distributionthat forms a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve (Figure8.12). This  
means that a majority of the scores fall in the middle of the curve and a few scores fall on the extremes. In addition  
to intelligence, measurements on many physical traits, like height and weight, also create a “bell curve” normal  
distribution.  
Figure 8.12 The normal distribution (bell curve) of scores on intelligence testsThe  
term “bell curve” refers to the fact that the graph used to depict the normal  
distribution of scores (shown here) is shaped like a bell. The highest point at the top  
of the bell represents the most likely , probable score (100 points), whereas all the  
other scores are equally distributed around this center point. Note that 68% of  
people score 15 points above or below the national average, which is 100 points.  
In the original version of the Stanford-Binet test, results were expressed in terms of a mental age (MA), which  
refers to an individual's level of mental development relative to that of others. If a 7-year-old's score equaled that of  
an average 8-year-old, the child was considered to have a mental age of 8. T o determine the child's intelligence  
quotient (IQ), mental age was divided by the child's chronological age (actual age in years) and multiplied by 100.  
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The most widely used intelligence test today, the W echsler Adult Intelligence Scale (W AIS),was developed by  
David W echsler in the early 1900s. He later created a similar test for school-aged children. Like the Stanford-Binet,  
W echsler's tests yield an overall intelligence score, along with separate index scores related to four specific areas:  
verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory , and processing speed. See Figure8.13 for samples  
of W echsler's perceptual reasoning test items.  
Figure 8.13 Items similar to those on the W echsler adult intelligence scale  
(W AIS)These simulated items resemble those found in the W echsler Adult  
Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (W AIS-IV). Previous editions of the W AIS  
included sections, such as Picture Arrangement, Block Design, and Object  
Assembly , which were dropped to increase reliability and user friendliness. W AISIV also takes less time to administer, and the results show smaller differences based  
on level of education or racial/ethnic group membership. Answers to the two  
puzzles here are provided in Appendix B. Source: Based on simulated items from  
the W echsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (W AIS-IV).  
T oday , most intelligence test scores are expressed as a comparison of a single person's score to a national sample of  
similar-aged people. Even though the actual IQ is no longer calculated using the original formula comparing  
mental and chronological ages, the term IQremains as a shorthand expression for intelligence test scores.  
Principles of T est Construction  
What makes a good test? How are the tests developed by Binet and Wechsler any better than those published in  
popular magazines and presented on television programs? T o be scientifically acceptable, all psychological tests  
must fulfill three basic requirements (Dombrowski, [8.37]; Jackson, [8.77]; Suzuki et al., [8.172]):  
•Standardizationin intelligence tests (as well as personality , aptitude, and most other tests) involves following a  
certain set of uniform procedures when administering a test. First, every test must have norms, or average  
scores, developed by giving the test to a representative sample of people (a diverse group of people who  
resemble those for whom the test is intended). Second, testing procedures must be standardized. All test takers  
must be given the same instructions, questions, and time limits, and all test administrators must follow the same  
objective score standards.  
•Reliabilityis usually determined by retesting participants to see whether their test scores change significantly .  
Retesting can be done via the test–r etest method, in which participants' scores on two separate administrations  
of the same test are compared, or via the split-half method, which splits a test into two equivalent parts (such as  
odd and even questions) and determines the degree of similarity between the two halves.  
•V alidityis the ability of a test to measure what it is designed to measure. The most important type of validity is  
criterion-related validity, or the accuracy with which test scores can be used to predict another variable of  
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interest (known as the criterion). Criterion-related validity is expressed as the corr elation(Chapter 1) between  
the test score and the criterion. If two variables are highly correlated, then one can be used to predict the other.  
Thus, if a test is valid, its scores will be useful in predicting an individual's behavior in some other specified  
situation. One example is using intelligence test scores to predict grades in college.  
Do you see why a test that is standardized and reliable but not valid is worthless? For example, a test for skin  
sensitivity may be easy to standardize (the instructions specify exactly how to apply the test agent), and it may be  
reliable (similar results are obtained on each retest). But it certainly would not be valid for predicting college  
grades.  
Extremes in Intelligence  
One of the best methods for judging the validity of a test is to compare people who score at the extremes. And  
intelligence tests provide one of the major criteria for assessing mental ability at the extremes—specifically, for  
diagnosing intellectual disabilityand mental giftedness.  
Intellectual Disability  
The clinical label intellectually disabled(previously referred to as mentally retarded) is applied when someone has  
considerable deficits in general mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem solving, and academic learning. These  
deficits may also result in impairments of adaptive functioning, including communication, social participation, and  
personal independence (American Psychiatric Association, [8.2]; Kumin, [8.92]).  
Fewer than 3% of people are classified as having an intellectual disability (see T able8.5). Of this group, 85% have  
only mild intellectual disability , and many become self-supporting, integrated members of society . Furthermore,  
people can score low on some measures of intelligence and still be average or even gifted in others (Miller et al.,  
[8.1 15]; Treffert, [8.180]; W erner & Roth, [8.195]). The most dramatic examples are people with savant syndr ome.  
People with savant syndrome generally score very low on IQ tests (usually between 40 and 70), yet they  
demonstrate exceptional skills or brilliance in specific areas, such as rapid calculation, art, memory, or musical  
ability (Figure8.14).  
T able8.5Degrees of Intellectual Disability  
Level of  
Disability  
IQ  
Scores  
Characteristics  
Mild  
(85%)  
50–70  
Usually able to become self-sufficient; may marry , have families,  
and secure full-time jobs in low-skilled occupations  
Moderate  
(10%)  
35–49  
Generally able to perform simple, low-skilled tasks; may contribute  
to a certain extent to their livelihood  
Severe  
(3–4%)  
20–34  
Generally able to follow daily routines, but need supervision; with  
training, may learn basic communication skills  
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Level of  
Disability  
IQ  
Scores  
Characteristics  
Profound  
(1–2%)  
below  
20  
Generally able to perform only the most rudimentary behaviors,  
such as walking, feeding themselves, and saying a few phrases  
Figure 8.14 Savant  
syndrome—an unusual form  
of intelligenceDerek  
Paravicini, a musical savant,  
pictured here, was born  
premature, blind, and with a  
severe learning disability . In  
spite of these challenges, he  
plays the concert piano  
entirely by ear and has a  
repertoire of thousands of  
pieces.  
Some forms of intellectual disability stem from genetic abnormalities, such as Down syndrome, fragile-X  
syndrome, and phenylketonuria (PKU). Other causes are environmental, including prenatal exposure to alcohol and  
other drugs, extreme deprivation or neglect in early life, and brain damage from physical trauma, such as car  
accidents or sports injuries. However, in many cases, there is no known cause of the intellectual disability .  
Mental Giftedness  
At the other end of the intelligence spectrum are people with especially high IQs (typically defined as an IQ of 130  
or higher). In the early 1900s, Lewis T erman identified 1,500 gifted children—affectionately nicknamed the  
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“T ermites”—with IQs of 140 or higher (T erman, [8.175]). He and his colleagues then tracked their progress  
through adulthood. The number who became highly successful professionals was many times the number a random  
group would have produced (Kreger Silverman, [8.88]; Plucker & Esping, [8.134]; T erman, [8.176]). Researchers  
noted, however, that those who were most successful tended to have extraordinary motivation, and they typically  
had someone at home or school who was especially encouraging (Goleman, [8.58]). Unfortunately, similar to the  
general population, some of the “T ermites” became alcoholics, got divorced, and died as a result of suicide  
(Campbell & Feng, [8.21]; Leslie, [8.97]; T erman, [8.176]).  
In sum, a high IQ is no guarantee of success in every endeavor . As shown by the “T ermites” study , and as  
emphasized at the end of this chapter and often in this text, personal traits and character strengths, like self-control,  
motivation, and perseverance, may be the strongest predictors of overall achievement and well-being. Having a  
growth mindset is particularly valuable for intellectual achievement (Dweck, [8.39]; Mischel, [8.116]; Rattan et al.,  
[8.140]).  
Retrieval Practice 8.3 Intelligence  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
What is the formal definition of intelligence?  
2\.   
The store of knowledge and skills gained through experience and education is known as ________intelligence.  
a. crystallized  
b. fluid  
c. general  
d. specific  
3\.   
Which is the most widely used intelligence test?  
a. W echsler Intelligence Scale for Children  
b. W echsler Adult Intelligence Scale  
c. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale  
d. Binet-T erman Intelligence Scale  
4\.   
If a test gives you the same score each time you take it, that test would be ________.  
a. reliable  
b. valid  
c. standardized  
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d. none of these options  
5\.   
V alidity refers to the ability of a test to ________.  
a. return the same score on separate administrations of the test  
b. measure what it is designed to measure  
c. avoid discrimination between different cultural groups  
d. give a standard deviation of scores  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
Employing precise terms, one of the Critical Thinking Components (CTCs) identified in the Prologue, is especially  
relevant to the word “intelligence.” The section on intelligence in this chapter examines the controversies  
surrounding the definition of this term. How do you define intelligence? How well would a standard IQ test  
measure your definition of intelligence?  
.  
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8.4 Intelligence Controversies  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major controversies surrounding intelligence.  
•Identifythe various theories and controversies concerning multiple intelligences.  
•Discussthe relative contributions of nature and nurture to IQ.  
•Describehow and why groups differ in mental ability tests.  
I'm grateful to intelligent people. That doesn't mean educated. That doesn't mean intellectual. I mean really intelligent.  
—Maya Angelou (American Poet, Author , Dancer)  
Psychologists have long debated several important questions related to intelligence: Is intelligence a general ability or a number of  
specific talents and aptitudes? Is IQ mostly inherited, or is it molded by our environment? Do men and women or racial and ethnic groups  
differ in mental abilities? If so, how and why?  
Multiple Intelligences  
For some time, psychologists have debated whether intelligence is a general ability or a collection of separate abilities. Earlier we  
discussed the history of the concept of gas an overall, general measure of intelligence—at least in terms of “academic smarts.” In this  
section, we'll explore why many contemporary cognitive theorists believe we all possess multiple intelligences.  
Gardner's and Sternberg's Theories  
The fact that brain-damaged patients often lose some intellectual abilities, while retaining others, suggested to psychologist Howard  
Gardner that different intelligences are located in discrete areas throughout the brain. According to Gardner's theory of multiple  
intelligences(1983, 2008), people have different profiles of intelligence because they are stronger in some areas than others (T able8.6).  
And they use their intelligences differently to learn new material, perform tasks, and solve problems. Moreover, Gardner's research  
suggests that most people possess one or more natural intelligences critical to success in various occupations. Carefully consider each of  
the multiple intelligences in T able 8.6 and how it might help guide you toward a satisfying career.  
T able8.6Gardner's Multiple Intelligences  
T ype of Intelligence Possible Careers  
Linguistic   
Language, such as speaking, reading a book, writing a story Novelist, journalist, teacher  
Spatial  
Mental maps, such as figuring out how to pack multiple presents in a box or how  
to draw a floor plan  
Engineer, architect, pilot  
Bodily/kinesthetic  
Body movement, such as dancing, soccer, and football Athlete, dancer, ski instructor  
Intrapersonal   
Understanding oneself, such as setting achievable goals or recognizing selfdefeating behaviors  
Increased success in almost all  
careers  
Logical/mathematical  
Problem solving or scientific analysis, such as following a logical proof or  
solving a mathematical problem  
Mathematician, scientist,  
engineer  
Musical  
Musical skills, such as singing or playing a musical instrument Singer, musician, composer  
Interpersonal   
Social skills, such as managing diverse groups or people  
Salesperson, manager,  
therapist, teacher  
Naturalistic  
Being attuned to nature, such as noticing seasonal patterns or using  
environmentally safe products  
Biologist, naturalist  
Spiritual/existential   
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T ype of Intelligence Possible Careers  
Attunement to meaning of life and death and other conditions of life Philosopher, theologian  
Source:Based on Gardner, [8.48], [8.49].  
Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligencealso assumes multiple abilities. As shown in T able8.7, Sternberg believes there are  
three separate, learned aspects of intelligence: (1) analytic, (2) cr eative, and (3) practical(Sternberg, [8.166], [8.168]).  
T able8.7Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence  
Analytical intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence  
Sample  
skills  
Good at analysis,  
evaluation, judgment,  
and comparison skills  
Good at invention, coping with  
novelty , and imagination skills  
Good at application,  
implementation,  
execution, and utilization  
skills  
Methods  
of  
assessment  
Intelligence tests that  
measure traditional  
verbal and mathematical  
skills  
Open-ended tasks, writing a short  
story , creating a piece of art,  
solving a scientific problem  
requiring insight  
T asks requiring solutions  
to practical, personal  
problems  
Sternberg emphasizes the process underlying thinking, rather than just the product. He also stresses the importance of applying mental  
abilities to real-world situations, rather than testing mental abilities in isolation. In short, Sternberg avoids the traditional idea of  
intelligence as an innate form of “book smarts.” Instead, he emphasizes successful intelligence as the learned ability to adapt to, shape,  
and select environments in order to accomplish personal and societal goals.  
Goleman's Emotional Intelligence (EI )  
Have you ever wondered why some people who are very intelligent, in terms of “book smarts,” still experience frequent conflicts and  
repeated failures in their friendships and work situations? In addition to Gardner's and Sternberg's theories of multiple intelligences,  
Daniel Goleman's research ([8.59], [8.60], [8.61]) and best-selling books have popularized the concept of emotional intelligence (EI),  
based on original work by Peter Salovey and John Mayer ([8.153]). Emotional intelligence (EI) is generally defined as the ability to  
perceive, understand, manage, and utilize emotions accurately and appropriately. If you'd like a brief self-test of your own emotional  
intelligence, see the following Try This Y ourself feature.  
Try This Y ourself Key Traits for Emotional Intelligence (EI )  
True or False?  
________1.   
Some of the major events of my life have led me to re-evaluate what is important and not important.  
________2.   
I can tell how other people are feeling just by looking at them.  
________3.   
I seek out activities that make me happy .  
________4.   
I am aware of my emotions as I experience them.  
________5.   
I am aware of the nonverbal messages I send to others.  
________6.   
I compliment others when they have done something well.  
Scoring:Each of these items represents one or more of the traits of an emotionally intelligent person. A higher number of “True”  
responses indicates a higher level of overall EI.  
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Proponents of EI have suggested that traditional measures of human intelligence ignore a crucial range of abilities that characterize  
people who are high in EI and tend to excel in real life: self-awareness, impulse control, persistence, zeal, self-motivation, empathy, and  
social deftness (Garg et al., [8.51]; Ruiz-Arranda et al., [8.149]; Stein & Deonarine, [8.165]). These proponents have also said that  
parents can play an instrumental role in the development of EI, as shown in Figure8.15. Surprisingly , research has even shown that  
people who watch televised dramas—such as Mad Men—show increases in emotional intelligence, more so than those who watch  
documentaries (Black & Barnes, [8.11]). This suggests that just seeing dramas may help expose us to different emotions, which increases  
our awareness of emotions.  
Figure 8.15 How do we develop emotional  
intelligence?  
The mother in this photo appears to be empathizing  
with her young daughter and helping her to recognize  
and manage her own emotions. According to  
Goleman, this type of modeling and instruction is vital  
to the development of emotional intelligence.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Should preschools and elementary schools be required  
to teach children emotional intelligence? Why or why  
not?  
2\.   
What is the role of emotional intelligence in business?  
Should it be a factor in hiring and promotions? What  
might be the advantages and drawbacks if it were?  
Although the idea of emotional intelligence is very appealing, critics fear that a handy term like EI invites misuse. Their strongest  
reaction is to Goleman's proposals for widespread teaching of EI. Paul McHugh, director of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University ,  
suggests that Goleman is “presuming that someone has the key to the right emotions to be taught to children. W e don't even know the  
right emotions to be taught to adults” (cited in Gibbs, [8.55], p. 68).  
Nature, Nurture, and IQ  
How is brain functioning related to intelligence? What factors—environmental or hereditary—most influence an individual's  
intelligence? These specific questions, and the controversies surrounding them, are discussed in this section.  
The Brain's Influence on Intelligence  
A basic tenet of neuroscience is that all mental activity (including intelligence) results from neural activity in the brain, which explains  
why most research on intelligence has focused on brain functioning. For example, neuroscientists have found that people who score  
highest on intelligence tests also respond more quickly on tasks requiring perceptual judgments (Hofman, [8.71]; Sternberg, [8.167],  
[8.168]; W agner et al., [8.190]).  
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In addition, research using positron emission tomography (PET) scans to measure brain activity (Chapter 2) suggests that intelligent  
brains work smarter, or more efficiently , than less-intelligent brains (Jung & Haier , [8.80]; Neubauer et al., [8.121]; Posthuma et al.,  
[8.136]). See Figure8.16.  
Figure 8.16 Do intelligent brains work more efficiently?  
In PET scan images, red and yellow indicate more  
activity in relevant brain areas. Note how during  
problem-solving tasks, low-IQ brains (left) show more  
activity than high-IQ brains (right). This research  
suggests that lower-IQ brains actually work harder ,  
although less efficiently , than higher-IQ brains.  
Does size matter? It makes logical sense that bigger brains would be smarter. In fact, imaging studies have found a significant correlation  
between brain size (adjusted for body size) and intelligence (Bouchard, [8.13]; Moller & Erritzoe, 2014). However, Albert Einstein's  
brain was no larger than normal (Witelson et al., [8.198]). In fact, some of Einstein's brain areas were actually smaller than average, but  
the area responsible for processing mathematical and spatial information was 15% larger than average.  
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence  
When we observe strong similarities in IQ among the members of a particular family, we might be tempted to attribute them to heredity .  
Such similarities, however, are due to a combination of hereditary (shared genetic material) and environmental factors (similar living  
arrangements and experiences).  
Researchers who are interested in the role of heredity in intelligence often focus on identical (monozygotic) twins because they share  
100% of their genetic material, as shown in Figure8.17. One example is the long-running Minnesota Study of T wins, an investigation of  
identical twins raised in different homes and reunited only as adults, which found that genetic factors appear to play a surprisingly large  
role in the IQ scores of identical twins (Bouchard, [8.13]; Rushton & Jensen, [8.151]).  
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Figure 8.17 Genetic and environmental influences on IQNote the higher correlations between identical twins' IQ test scores compared to  
correlations between all other pairs. Genes no doubt play a role in intelligence, but these effects are difficult to separate from  
environmental influences. (Based on Bouchard, [8.13]; Bouchard & McGue, [8.14]; Plomin & Deary , [8.133].)  
In contrast, those who emphasize environmental influences on intelligence would say that these twin study results are not conclusive.  
Adoption agencies tend to look for similar criteria in their choice of adoptive parents. Therefore, the homes of these “reared apart” twins  
were actually quite similar. Moreover , these twins shared the same 9-month prenatal environment, which might have influenced their  
brain development and hence their intelligence (Felson, [8.43]; White et al., [8.196]).  
Additional evidence of environmental influences on intelligence comes from studies of the multiple effects of abuse and neglect in  
childhood, as well as from brain scans of children who are seriously neglected (Figure8.18). Likewise, early malnutrition, which affects  
over 113 million children worldwide, can retard a child's intellectual development, curiosity, and motivation for learning (Peter et al.,  
[8.131]; Schoenmaker et al., [8.158]; V enables & Raine, [8.139]).  
Figure 8.18 Neglect and IQ  
These images illustrate the negative impact of  
neglect on the developing brain. The brain on  
the left is from a normal developing child,  
whose brain size is in the 50th percentile. The  
brain on the right is from a child suffering  
from severe sensory deprivation neglect,  
whose brain size is in the lowest third  
percentile.  
Source:Photo supplied with kind permission  
from Springer Science+Business Media:  
Perry , B.D. Childhood experience and the  
expression of genetic potential: what  
childhood neglect tells us about nature and  
nurture Brain and Mind 3: 79-100, 2002.  
Also supporting environmental effects is research indicating that only children have higher gray-matter volume than children with  
siblings (Y ang et al., [8.202]). Other research has found that breast-fed babies have higher gray-matter volume and higher IQ scores than  
non-breast-fed babies (Horta et al., [8.73]; Luby et al., [8.104]). Gray-matter volume is associated with intelligence.  
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In short, genetics and environment play interacting and inseparable roles. Intelligence is like a rubber band. Heredity equips each of us  
with innate intellectual capabilities (our personal rubber band). But our environment helps shrink or stretch this band, which significantly  
influences whether or not we reach our full intellectual potential.  
Group Differences in IQ Scores  
As we've just seen, intelligence in general does show a high degree of heritability. However , it's VER Y important to recognize that  
heritability cannot explain between-group differences! Note the overall difference between the average height of plants on the left and  
those on the right in Figure8.19. Just as we cannot say that the difference betweenthese two groups of plants is due to heredity , we  
similarly cannot say that differences in IQ betweenany two groups of people are due to heredity .  
Figure 8.19 Genetics versus environmentNote that  
even when you begin with the same package of  
seeds (genetic inheritance), the average height of  
corn plants in fertile soil will be greater than the  
average height of corn plants in poor soil  
(environmental influences). Therefore, no valid or  
logical conclusions can be drawn about the overall  
genetic differences between the two groups of plants  
because the two environments (soil) are so different.  
Similar logic must be applied to intelligence scores  
between groups.  
Note also the considerable variation in height withinthe group of plants on the left and those withinthe group on the right. Just as some  
plants are taller than others, there are individuals who score high on IQ tests and others who score low. Always remember that when we  
compare individuals' IQ scores, we can only compare individuals withingroups—not between groups.  
Controversial Racial and Ethnic Differences  
One of the most long-standing controversies in this area revolves around reported differences in IQ scores between racial and ethnic  
groups. This focus on racial and ethnic differences explains why the debate is so heated. It also highlights why the distinction between  
within- and between-group differences is so essential. Consider that intelligence is often linked with financial success. If you were in a  
group at the top of the economic ladder, and you believed that intelligence was primarily inherited, you might believe that your position  
and privilege were part of your intellectual birthright, without considering that you were also born with special advantages that  
maximized any inherited abilities. Can you see how this mindset ignores the “fertile soil” idea? See again Figure 8.19.  
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W e've already seen that heredity does contribute to individual differences in IQ, but group differences in any heritable trait are highly  
dependent on environment. Setting aside the political implications, let's carefully consider five key research findings:  
•Environmental and cultural factors may override genetic potential and later affect IQtest scores. Like plants that come from similar  
seeds, but are placed in poor soil, children of color are more likely to grow up in stressful, lower socioeconomic conditions, which  
may hamper their true intellectual potential. Furthermore, in some ethnic groups and economic classes, a child who excels in school  
may be ridiculed for trying to be different from his or her classmates. Moreover, if children's own language and dialect do not match  
their education system or the IQ tests they take, they are obviously at a disadvantage (Davies et al., [8.33]; Suzuki et al., [8.172]; von  
Stumm & Plomin, [8.133]).  
•Traditional IQtests may be culturally biased. If standardized IQ tests contain questions that reflect White middle-class culture, they  
will discriminate against test takers with differing language, knowledge, and experience (Chapman et al., [8.24]; Stanovich, [8.163]).  
Researchers have attempted to create a culture-fairor culture-fr eeIQ test, but they have found it virtually impossible to do. Past  
experiences, motivation, test-taking abilities, and previous experiences with tests are powerful influences on IQ scores. The good  
news is that positive environmental messages can help offset some of these problems. For example, simply including aspects of Black  
culture—The Color Purple, BET , Black History Month—within a university setting has been linked to positive academic outcomes  
(Brannon et al., [8.17]).  
•Intelligence (as measured by IQtests) is not a fixed trait. Around the world, IQ scores have increased over the past half century. This  
well-established phenomenon, known as the Flynn effect, may be due to improved nutrition, better public education, more proficient  
test-taking skills, and rising levels of education for a greater percentage of the world's population (Flynn, [8.45], [8.46]; Flynn et al.,  
[8.47]; W oodley of Menie et al., 2016). Fortunately , research shows that simply believing that intelligence is nota fixed trait is  
correlated with higher academic grades and fewer feelings of helplessness (De Castella & Byrne, [8.34]; Romero et al., [8.143]).  
•Race and ethnicity , like intelligence itself, are almost impossible to define. Depending on the definition we use, there are between 3  
and 300 races, and no race is pure in a biological sense (Humes & Hogan, [8.75]; Kite, [8.85]). Furthermore, like former President  
Barack Obama, Tiger W oods, and Mariah Carey , many people today self-identify as multiracial.  
•Negative stereotypes about people of color can cause some group members to doubt their abilities. This phenomenon, called  
stereotype threat, may , in turn, reduce their intelligence test scores (Boucher et al., [8.15]; Kaye & Pennington, [8.82]; Steele &  
Aronson, [8.164]). In the first study of stereotype threat, Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson ([8.164]) recruited Black and White  
college students (with similar ability levels) to complete a difficult verbal exam. Students in one group were told that the exam was  
diagnostic of their intellectual abilities, and in this group, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites. However, in the second  
group, where students were told the exam was not diagnostic, there were no differences between the two groups' scores.  
Stereotype Threat  
Given the potential lasting impact of stereotype threat, let's explore it in more depth. First, why did the Blacks in the first group  
underperform and not in the other? It appears that members of stereotyped groups are anxious that they will fulfill their group's negative  
stereotype, and their anxiety hinders their performance on tests. Some people cope with stereotype threat by disidentifying, telling  
themselves they don't care about the test scores (Major et al., [8.105]; Rothgerber & W olsiefer, [8.148]). Understandably , this attitude  
reduces motivation and leads to decreased performance (Figure8.20).  
Figure 8.20 How stereotype threat leads to decreased performance  
Stereotype threat affects people in many social groups, including those who are elderly or low-income, people of color, women, and  
White male athletes (Bouazzaoui et al., [8.12]; Hively & El-Alayhi, [8.69]; Kaye & Pennington, [8.82]). Researchers in one study  
examined high school women's interest in computer science after they were given descriptions and photographs of both a stereotypical  
and a nonstereotypical computer science classroom (Master et al., [8.109]). The stereotypical classroom contained objects such as Star  
W arsitems, tech magazines, and science fiction books. The nonstereotypical classroom had objects such as nature pictures, general  
magazines, and plants. On average, women expressed heightened interest in taking a computer science class after seeing the  
nonstereotypical classroom. Men's interest, in comparison, did not differ by classroom. Studies like this suggest that when women are  
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under-represented in particular fields, like computer science, the underrepresentation may be due not to women's ability but rather to  
subtle social and environmental factors.  
Research on stereotype threat helps explain some group differences in intelligence and achievement tests. In doing so, it underscores why  
relying solely on such tests to make critical decisions affecting individual lives—in hiring, college admissions, or clinical application—is  
unwarranted and possibly even unethical.  
What's the good news? First, some early research found that having Barack Obama as president improved academic performance in  
people of color—thus offsetting stereotype threat (Marx et al., [8.106]). See Figure8.21. Second, people who have the opportunity to  
self-affirm, or validate, their identities in some meaningful way do not show the negative effects of stereotype threat. For example, Black  
first-year college students who receive information about how to feel more connected to their college or university show higher GP As.  
They likewise experience better health three years later compared to those who do not receive the “how to connect” information (Walton  
& Cohen, [8.191]).  
Figure 8.21 “Obama effect” versus stereotype  
threatSome research has found a so-called “Obama  
effect,” which reportedly offsets problems related to  
the stereotype threat (Dillon, [8.36]; Meirick &  
Schartel Dunn, [8.114]). However, other studies found  
either no relationship between test performance and  
positive thoughts about Obama or mixed results  
(Aronson et al., [8.3]; Stricker & Rock, [8.170]).  
Psychology and Y our Professional SuccessIs a High IQ Essential to High Achievement?  
In our culture, high IQ and high financial status are generally idolized, and Bill Gates and Albert Einstein are revered icons (see the  
photos). Why? As you've just seen, modern research suggests that intelligence is not entirely the result of inherited traits. In fact, both IQ  
and great economic success are the result of numerous personality , social, and biological factors.  
Personality Factors  
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How do we explain Bill Gates's and Albert Einstein's genius-level achievements? Several studies have found that personal attributes such  
as a growth mindsetand grit, along with self-discipline, impulse control,and motivation, are the best predictors of achievement (e.g.,  
Claro et al., [8.29]; Duckworth, [8.38]; Dweck, [8.39]).  
Let's examine the importance of perseveranceand passion—the two key components of grit. Research has shown that internationally  
recognized experts in a variety of fields (e.g., athletics, music, science, writing, mathematics) required approximately 10 years of  
intensive training before reaching their level of success (Ericsson, 1993, 2006; Mooradian et al., [8.119]). Clearly , that takes  
perseverance.  
Others suggest that it's not just the willingness to practice for extended periods of time that matters. Instead, they believe the one factor  
most predictive of expertise is the number of hours spent in what they call deliberate practice. Highly competent professionals not only  
practice more—they practice better. When they train, experts constantly evaluate their own performance and then concentrate more time  
and energy in areas where they are weak (Eskreis-Winkler et al., [8.40]; Keith et al., [8.84]).  
What if you're not an expert? Research shows that deliberate practice can even improve undergraduates' end-of-semester grades (EskreisWinkler et al., [8.40]). Can you see how this type of self-monitoring followed by focused practice can be invaluable to both your  
academic and career success? While reading a text or listening to lectures, and training for a new job or promotion, be sure to carefully  
monitor your understanding of the material and note the areas where you need to apply extra time and effort. If you've been using the  
WileyPLUS adaptive practice testing—an accompaniment to this text—you've undoubtedly noticed the benefits of this type of deliberate  
practice.  
Social Factors  
What Gates and Einstein had were not just a growth mindset, grit, and the ability to focus and practice for long periods of time. They also  
came from cultures that placed high value on literacy and education and from high-income families—though family income matters  
somewhat less. Such families tend to have children who are more likely to develop their intellectual abilities to their highest potential  
(Claro et al., [8.29]; Liu & Xie, 2016). Also, when a culture, community , and family assume that hard work is more important than innate  
abilities, that education and learning should be a joy , and that a child's accomplishments reflect on the family and the community , the  
child is likely to internalize the same values and attempt to achieve maximum success (Chua & Rubenfeld, [8.28]; Ricci & Lee, [8.141];  
Shin et al., [8.160]).  
One study followed Chinese American students from elementary school until high school. At first, IQ tests did not show an advantage of  
Asian Americans over other Americans. However, over time, their academic abilities flourished in comparison to their peers. By high  
school, their grades were significantly higher than their peers with similar IQ scores (Flynn, 1991). Researchers concluded that cultural  
beliefs about education and hard work played a dominant role in their accomplishments.  
Biological Factors  
Are you wondering if high-achieving athletes, like Olympic-medal-winning gymnast Simone Biles or swimmer Michael Phelps, have  
biological advantages that we don't? Y ears ago, researchers presumed star athletes were born with faster reflexes, larger hearts, superior  
lung capacity , more muscle tissue, and so on. This is not necessarily the case. Most athletes develop these characteristics thanks to years  
of intensive training.  
T ake-Home Message  
Whether it's great financial, intellectual, or athletic achievement, the media and public appear most interested in the innate genetics and  
“hard wiring” supposedly underlying great success. However, as you've discovered throughout this text, our brains are remarkably  
“plastic,” and the latest research combining personality , social, and biological factors reinforces once again the importance of the  
biopsychosocial model.  
If you're questioning your ability to be a physician or a member of any other profession because of supposed intellectual barriers, be sure  
to critically reevaluate your concerns and consider all your options. Also, talk to successful people in your desired career field. Y ou'll  
undoubtedly discover that personal behaviors and character strengths, like self-control, motivation, deliberate practice, grit, and a growth  
mindset, are generally the best predictors of lifetime achievement (e.g., Duckworth, [8.38]; Dweck, [8.39]; Eskreis-Winkler et al., [8.40]).  
Retrieval Practice 8.4 Intelligence Controversies  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
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1\.   
Briefly explain how brain size might affect intelligence.  
2\.   
Which of the following persons would be most likely to have similar IQ test scores?  
a. identical twins raised apart  
b. identical twins raised together  
c. fraternal twins raised apart  
d. brothers and sisters from the same parents  
3\.   
By examining identical twins raised in different homes and reunited only as adults, ________found that genetic factors appear to play a  
surprisingly large role in the IQ scores of identical twins.  
a. the Minnesota Study of T wins  
b. Lewis T erman's “T ermites” research  
c. the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Studies  
d. David W echsler's research  
4\.   
Howard Gardner proposed a theory of ________.  
a. language development  
b. fluid and crystallized intelligence  
c. culture specificity intelligence  
d. multiple intelligences  
5\.   
A wareness of a negative stereotype that affects oneself and may lead to impairment in performance is known as ________.  
a. the Flynn effect  
b. the “Obama effect”  
c. a bell curve  
d. stereotype threat  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 13 (Personality), you'll discover several criticisms about how psychologists typically measure personality, whereas in this  
chapter , we discussed the criticisms of IQ assessment. How do the two sets of criticism overlap and how are they different?


	9. Chapter 9

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9.1 Studying Development  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review developmental psychology's theoretical issues and key research approaches.  
•Definedevelopmental psychology .  
•Discussthe three core theoretical issues in developmental psychology .  
•Contrastthe cross-sectional research design with the longitudinal research design.  
•Discusscultural psychology's four research guidelines.  
Just as some parents carefully document their child's progress throughout his or her life, the field of developmental psychologystudies  
growth and change throughout the eight major stages of life—from conception to death, or “womb to tomb” (T able9.1). These studies have  
led to three key theoretical issues.  
T able9.1Life Span Development  
Stage Approximate Age  
Prenatal Conception to birth  
Infancy Birth to 18 months  
Early childhood 18 months to 6 years  
Middle childhood6 to 12 years  
Adolescence 12 to 20 years  
Y oung adulthood 20 to 45 years  
Middle adulthood45 to 60 years  
Late adulthood 60 years to death  
Theoretical Issues  
Almost every area of research in human development frames questions around three major issues:  
1.Nature or nurture? How do genetics (nature) and life experiences (nurture) influence development? According to the nature position,  
development is largely governed by automatic, genetically predetermined signals in a process known as maturation. Just as a flower  
unfolds in accord with its genetic blueprint, humans crawl before we walk and walk before we run.  
In addition, naturists believe there are critical periods, or windows of opportunity , that occur early in life when exposure to certain  
stimuli or experiences is necessary for proper development. For example, many newborn animals form rigid attachments to particular  
stimuli shortly after birth, a process called imprinting(Figure9.1).  
Figure 9.1 Critical periods and  
imprintingSome animals, like these  
baby cranes, simply attach to, or  
imprint on, the first large, moving  
object they see—in this case, French  
pilot Christian Moullec, who raised  
the cranes from birth.  
Human children may also have critical periods for normal development. For instance, infants who are born with cataracts, a condition  
in which the eye's lens is cloudy and distorts vision, are able to see much better if they're operated on as infants than if they're operated  
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on after the age of eight. In addition, research has shown that appropriate social interaction with adults in the first few weeks of life is  
essential for creating normal cognitive and social development (Berger, [9.39]; Harker et al., [9.89]; Mermelshtine & Barnes, [9.1 17]).  
Sadly , a study of both Israeli and Palestinian children found that exposure to serious military/political violence at age 8 is associated  
with more aggressive behavior later on, whereas witnessing such violence at later ages doesn't lead to aggression (Boxer et al., [9.47]).  
These and similar studies provide further evidence for critical periods—at least in the early years (see the Research Challenge).  
2.Stages or continuity? Some developmental psychologists suggest that development generally occurs in stagesthat are discrete and  
qualitatively different from one another , whereas others believe it follows a continuous pattern, with gradual but steady and quantitative  
(measurable) changes (Figure9.2).  
Figure 9.2 Stages versus continuity in developmentThere is an ongoing debate  
about whether development is better characterized by discrete stages or by  
gradual, continuous development.  
3.Stability or change? Which of our traits are stable and present throughout our life span, and what aspects will change? Psychologists  
who emphasize stabilityhold that measurements of personality taken during childhood are major predictors of adult personality; those  
who emphasize changedisagree.  
Which of these positions is most correct? Psychologists generally do not take a hard line either way. Rather , they prefer an interactionist  
perspective and/or the biopsychosocial model. For instance, in the nature-versus-nurture debate, psychologists agree that development  
emerges from unique genetic predispositions andenvironmental experiences (Auger, [9.30]; Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, [9.53];  
Gallagher & Jones, [9.78]).  
Research Challenge Deprivation and Development  
What happens if a child is deprived of appropriate stimulation during a critical period of development? Consider the story of Genie, the socalled “wild child.” From the time she was 20 months old until authorities rescued her at age 13, Genie (see photo) was locked alone in a  
tiny , windowless room. By day , she sat naked and tied to a child's toilet with nothing to do and no one to talk to. At night, she was  
immobilized in a kind of straitjacket and “caged” in a covered crib. Genie's abusive father forbade anyone to speak to her for those 13 years.  
If Genie made noise, her father beat her while he barked and growled like a dog.  
Genie's tale is a heartbreaking account of the lasting scars from a disastrous childhood. In the years after her rescue, Genie spent thousands  
of hours receiving special training, and by age 19 she could use public transportation and was adapting well to special classes at school.  
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Genie was far from normal, however. Her intelligence scores were still close to the cutoff for intellectual disability . And although linguists  
and psychologists worked with her for many years, she was never able to master grammatical structure, and was limited to sentences like  
“Genie go” (Rymer, [9.137]).  
These findings suggest that because of her extreme childhood isolation and abuse, Genie, like other seriously neglected or environmentally  
isolated children, missed a necessary critical period for language development (Curtiss, [9.58]; Raaska et al., [9.128]; Sylvestre & Mérette,  
[9.155]). T o make matters worse, she was also placed in a series of foster homes, some of which were emotionally and physically abusive.  
According to the latest information, Genie now lives in a privately run facility for mentally underdeveloped adults (James, [9.101]).  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Rymer, [9.137]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to  
groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks  
and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you  
become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Research Approaches  
T o investigate these three controversies and other questions, developmental psychologists typically use all the research methods discussed  
in Chapter 1. T o study the entire human life span, they also need two additional techniques—cr oss-sectionaland longitudinalresearch  
(Figure9.3).  
Figure 9.3 Cross-sectional versus longitudinal researchT o study development, psychologists may use a cross-sectional research design, a  
longitudinal research design, or both.  
The cross-sectional designmeasures individuals of various ages at a single point in time to provide information about age differences. One  
cross-sectional study included women in three different age groups (ages 22–34, 35–49, and 50–65) to examine whether body weight  
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dissatisfaction changes with age (Siegel, [9.145]). Unfortunately , female body dissatisfaction appears to be quite stable—and relatively high  
—across the life span.  
In contrast, a longitudinal designtakes repeated measures of one person or a group of same-aged people over a long period of time to see  
how the individual or the group changes over time. For example, a group of developmental researchers wondered if peer ratings of  
personality taken during childhood might be better predictors of later adult personality than self-ratings (Martin-Storey et al., [9.113]). They  
first asked grade school children in 1976–1978 to rate themselves and their peers on several personality factors, such as likeability,  
aggression, and social withdrawal. In 1999–2003, the researchers returned and asked the same participants, now in mid-adulthood, to  
complete a second series of personality tests. As hypothesized, the peer ratings were better than self-ratings in predicting adult personality.  
Does this finding surprise you? If so, try contacting some of your childhood peers and then compare notes on how you remember one  
another's personality as children and how this evaluation predicted your personalities as adults.  
Now that you have a better idea of these two types of research, if you were a developmental psychologist interested in studying intelligence  
in adults, which design would you choose—cross-sectional or longitudinal? Before you decide, note the different research results shown in  
Figure9.4.  
Figure 9.4 Which results are true?Cross-sectional studies have shown  
that reasoning and intelligence reach their peak in early adulthood and  
then gradually decline. In contrast, longitudinal studies have found that  
a marked decline does not begin until about age 60.Adapted from  
Schaie, 1994, with permission.  
Why do the two methods show such different results? Cross-sectional studies sometimes confuse genuine age differences with cohort  
effects—differences that result from specific histories of the age group studied. As shown in the top line in Figure 9.4, the 81-year-olds  
measured by the cross-sectional design have dramatically lower scores than the 25-year-olds. But is this due to aging or instead to broad  
environmental differences, such as less formal education or poorer nutrition?  
A prime example of possible environmental effects on cross-sectional studies is a recent survey of attitudes towards gay marriage that found  
young people are much more in favor of gay marriage than older people (Pew Research Center, [9.124]). So does this mean that people  
grow more opposed to gay marriage as they age? Probably not. These differences most likely reflect cohort and generational effects. Y oung  
people today are generally more liberal and more positive toward different sexual orientations, and therefore more likely to support gay  
marriage. They'll also probably maintain their current attitudes as they age.  
The essential thing to remember is that because the different age groups, called cohorts, grew up in different historical periods, research  
results that apply to them may not apply to people growing up at other times. With the cross-sectional design, age effects and cohort effects  
are sometimes inextricably tangled. (As a critical thinker, can you see how cohort effectsare a unique research problem for cross-cultural  
studies, just as the thir d-variable problemposes a unique threat to correlational studies—discussed in Chapter 1?)  
Longitudinal studies have their own share of limits and disadvantages. They are expensive in terms of time and money, and it is difficult for  
us to generalize their results. Because participants often drop out or move away during the extended test period, the experimenter may end  
up with a self-selected sample that differs from the general population in crucial ways. Each method of research has strengths and  
weaknesses (as you recall from the right-hand side of Figure 9.3). Keep these differences in mind when you read the findings of  
developmental research.  
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Also note that modern researchers sometimes combine both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs into one study. In Chapter 10, we will  
discuss a study that examined whether well-being decreases with age (Sutin et al., [9.153]). When these researchers examined combined  
cross-sectional and longitudinal data from two independent samples taken over 30 years, they initially found that well-being declinedwith  
age. However , when they then controlled for the fact that older cohorts started out with lower levels of well-being, they found that all the  
cohorts incr easedrather than decreased in well-being with age. The reversal in findings was explained by the fact that the older group of  
people had experienced instances of major turmoil in their younger years, including America's Great Depression during the 1930s. This  
means that this group started out with lower levels of well-being. Sadly, they apparently maintained these attitudes into their later years,  
compared to those who grew up during more prosperous times.  
Why is this combination of two research designs valuable? It offers a more accurate and positive view of well-being in old age than what  
was indicated in either the cross-sectional design or the longitudinal design. It also suggests some troubling possibilities for today's young  
adults who are entering a stagnant workforce with high unemployment. As the study's authors say , this “economic turmoil may impede  
[their] psychological, as well as financial, growth even decades after times get better” (Sutin et al., [9.153], p. 384). If you're one of these  
young adults, you'll be happy to hear that there's some very encouraging research showing that individuals who enter their teens and early  
20s during a recession are less narcissistic than those who come of age in more prosperous times (Bianchi, [9.41], [9.42]). In fact, CEOs  
who were in their teens and early 20s during bad economic times later paid themselves less compared to other top executives. The following  
Gender and Cultural Diversity offers more information regarding research across cultures.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Should Diversity Affect Research?  
How would you answer the following question: “If you wanted to predict how a human child anywhere in the world was going to grow up  
—what his or her behavior was going to be like as an adult—and you could have only one fact about that child, what fact would you choose  
to have?”  
According to cultural psychologists, the answer to this question should be “culture” (Figure9.5). Developmental psychology has  
traditionally studied people (children, adolescents, and adults) with little attention to the sociocultural context. In recent times, however,  
psychologists are paying increasing attention to the following points:  
•Culture may be the major determinant of development. If a child grows up in an individualistic/independent culture (such as those of  
the United States, Canada, and most countries in W estern Europe), we can predict that this child will probably be competitive and  
question authority as an adult. W ere this same child reared in a collectivist/interdependent culture (common in Africa, Asia, and Latin  
America), she or he would most likely grow up to be cooperative and respectful of elders (Berry et al., [9.40]; Greenfield et al. 2012;  
Manago & Greenfield, 2011).  
•Human development cannot be studied outside its sociocultural context. In parts of Korea, most teenagers see a strict, authoritarian  
style of parenting as a sign of love and concern (Kim & Choi, 1995). Korean American and Korean Canadian teenagers, however, see  
the same behavior as a sign of rejection. Thus, rather than studying any general response to “authoritarian parenting styles,” discussed  
later in this chapter , researchers in child development prefer to study children only within their developmental niche(Hewlett &  
Roulette, 2014; T orney-Purta, 2013; Y amagishi, 2011). A developmental niche has three components: the physical and social contexts in  
which the child lives, the rearing and educational practices of the child's culture, and the psychological characteristics of the parents  
(Bugental & Johnston, 2000; Harkness et al., 2007).  
•Each culture's ethnotheories are key determinants of behavior. Within every culture, people have a prevailing set of ideas and beliefs  
that attempt to explain the world around them (an ethnotheory) (Carra et al., 2014; Kartner et al., 2013; Lau, 2010). In the area of child  
development, for example, cultures have specific ethnotheories about how children should be trained. As a critical thinker, you can  
anticipate that differing ethnotheories can lead to problems between cultures. In fact, the very idea of “critical thinking” is part of our  
North American ethnotheory regarding education. And it, too, can produce culture clashes. Concha Delgado-Gaitan (1994) found that  
Mexican immigrants from a rural background have a difficult time adjusting to U.S. schools, which teach children to question authority  
and think for themselves. In their culture of origin, these children are trained to respect their elders, be good listeners, and participate in  
conversation only when their opinion is solicited. Children who argue with adults are reminded not to be malcriados(naughty or  
disrespectful).  
•Culture is largely invisible to its participants. Culture consists of ideals, values, and assumptions that are widely shared among a given  
group and that guide specific behaviors (Angeloni, 2014; Matsumoto & Juang, 2013; Ratner, 201 1). Precisely because these ideals and  
values are widely shared, they are seldom discussed or directly examined. Just as a “fish doesn't know it's in water,” we take our culture  
for granted, operating within it, though being almost unaware of it. See the following Try This Y ourself.  
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Figure 9.5 Cultural influences on developmentAs you're reading these two  
chapters on development (Chapters 9 and 10), ask yourself how culture  
might affect the lifespan development of these two groups of adolescents.  
Try This Y ourself Culture Invisibility  
If you'd like a personal demonstration of the invisibility of culture, try this simple experiment: The next time you walk into an elevator,  
don't turn around. Remain facing the rear wall. W atch how others respond when you don't turn around (or when you stand right next to them  
rather than going to the other side of the elevator). Our American culture has rules that prescribe the “proper” way to ride in an elevator, and  
people become very uncomfortable when those rules are violated.  
Retrieval Practice 9.1 Studying Development  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
What does the field of developmental psychology study?  
2\.   
________is governed by automatic, genetically predetermined signals.  
a. The cohort effect  
b. Secondary aging  
c. Thanatology  
d. Maturation  
3\.   
A specific time during which an organism must experience certain stimuli in order to develop properly in the future is known as ________.  
a. the cohort years  
b. a critical period  
c. the thanatology phase  
d. maturation  
4\.   
What three major questions are studied in developmental psychology?  
a. nature versus nurture, stages versus continuity , and stability versus change  
b. nature versus nurture, “chunking” versus continuity , and instability versus change  
c. nature versus nurture, stages versus continuity , and stagnation versus instability  
d. none of these options  
5\.   
________studies are the most time-efficient method, whereas ________studies provide the most in-depth information per participant.  
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a. Latitudinal; longitudinal  
b. Neo-gerontology; longitudinal  
c. Cross-sectional; longitudinal  
d. Class-racial; longitudinal  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction to Psychology and Its Research Methods), you discovered how various scientists approach research questions. In  
this chapter , you learned about two additional research designs: cross-sectional and longitudinal. Using these two methods, explain how you  
could test for age-related changes in reaction times.  
.  
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Print this page  
9.2 Physical Development  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major physical changes that occur throughout our life span.  
•Discusshow genetic material passes from one generation to the next.  
•Identifythe three phases of prenatal physical development.  
•Summarizephysical development during early childhood.  
•Describethe physical changes that occur during adolescence and adulthood.  
After studying the photos of your textbook authors as they've aged over the life span (Figure9.6), or after reviewing your own similar photos, you may  
be amused and surprised by all the dramatic changes in physical appearance. But have you stopped to appreciate the incredible underlying process that  
transforms all of us from birth to death? In this section, we will explore the fascinating process of physical development from conception through  
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.  
Figure 9.6 Changes in physical development over the life spanAs this series of photos of  
your textbook authors shows, physical changes occur throughout our lives. Our cognitive,  
social, and emotional processes, as well as our personalities, also are continually changing,  
but the changes aren't as visible. (The top row is Karen Huffman at ages 1, 10, and 60. The  
second row is Katherine Dowdell at ages 2, 10, and 50; The third row is Catherine  
Sanderson at ages 1, 10, and 30.)  
Prenatal Development  
At the moment of your conception, your biological mother and father each contributed 23 chromosomes, which are threadlike, linear strands of DNA  
(deoxyribonucleic acid) encoded with their genes(Figure9.7). Interestingly , DNA of all humans (except identical twins) has unique, distinguishing  
features, much like the details on our fingerprints. This uniqueness is commonly used in forensics to exclude or identify criminal suspects. Furthermore,  
DNA analysis is often used for genetic testing during prenatal development to identify existing or potential future disorders.  
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Figure 9.7 Conception and your hereditary code  
Note that genesare the basic building blocks of our entire biological inheritance (Garrett, [9.79]; Scherman, [9.140]). Each of our human characteristics  
and behaviors is related to the presence or absence of particular genes that control the transmission of traits. For some traits, such as blood type, a single  
pair of genes (one from each parent) determines what characteristics we will possess. When two genes for a given trait conflict, the outcome depends on  
whether the gene is dominantor r ecessive. A dominant gene reveals its trait whenever the gene is present. In contrast, the gene for a recessive trait is  
normally expressed only if the other gene in the pair is also recessive.  
Unfortunately , there are numerous myths and misconceptions about traits supposedly genetically determinedby dominant genes. For example, we once  
assumed that characteristics such as eye color, hair color , and height were the result of either one dominant gene or two paired recessive genes. But  
modern geneticists now believe that these characteristics are polygenic, meaning they are controlled by multiple genes. One of the major goals of the  
new field of behavioral genetics, which studies the interplay of heredity and the environment, is to identify and study these polygenic traits.  
Another new and related field of research, known as epigenetics, studies how nongenetic factors can dramatically affect how (and if) inherited genes are  
expressed throughout our lives (Brody et al., [9.49]; Iakoubov et al., [9.100]; W allack & Thornburg, [9.165]). Unlike simple genetic transmission, which  
is based on changes in the DNA sequence, changes in gene expression can have other causes, such as age, environment, lifestyle, or disease. (The term  
“epi” means “above” or “outside of”—see the Study Tip.) In other words, nurture can shape nature! Epigenetic factors can switch genes “ON” or “OFF .”  
As a case in point, an epigenetic factor like malnutrition or childhood abuse can prevent a child from reaching his or her full potential genetic height or  
maximum genetic intelligence (Denholm et al., 2013; V enables & Raine, 2016). The good news is that with environmental changes even identical twins  
are not destined to develop the same diseases.  
Study Tip  
Are you confused by the term “epigenetics”? If so, think of genetics as this book and epigenetics as you, the reader . Like traditional genetic inheritance,  
once this text is printed, the information is “hard wired” and will be passed along to all readers in the same fashion. But how this information is later  
interpr eted will vary depending on you and all other readers—the epigenetic factors.  
Three Stages of Prenatal Development  
Now that we've discussed the general principles of how our genes and our environment interact to form us as unique individuals, let's go back to the  
moment of your conception. At that point in time, you were a single cell barely 1/175 of an inch in diameter—smaller than the period at the end of this  
sentence. This new cell, called a zygote, then began a process of rapid cell division that resulted in a multimillion-celled infant (you) some nine months  
later .  
The (see Study Tip) vast changes that occur during the nine months of a full-term pregnancy are usually divided into three stages: the germinal period,  
embryonic period, and fetal period(Step-by-Step Diagram9.1). Prenatal growth and growth during the first few years after birth are proximodistal  
(near to far), which means that the innermost parts of the body develop before the outermost parts. Thus, a fetus's arms develop before its hands and  
fingers. Development at this stage also proceeds cephalocaudally(head to tail)—a fetus's head is disproportionately large compared with the lower part  
of its body . Can you see how these two terms—proximodistal and cephalocaudal—help explain why an infant can lift its head before it can lift its arms  
and lift its arms before lifting its legs?  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 9.1 Prenatal Development  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to  
study it CAREFULL Y!  
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Hazards to Prenatal Development  
As we've just seen, human development begins with the genes we inherit from our biological parents, and epigenetic factors, like age, lifestyle, and  
diseases, can dramatically affect how (and if) these inherited genes are expressed. During pregnancy , for example, the placentaconnects the fetus to the  
mother's uterus and serves as the link for delivery of food and excretion of wastes. Moreover, it screens out some, but not all, harmful substances. As  
you can see in T able9.2, environmental hazards such as X-rays and toxic waste, drugs, and diseases can still cross the placental barrier and have an  
epigenetic effect—meaning they leave a chemical mark on the DNA that abnormally switches the fetus's genes on or off. These influences generally  
have the most devastating effects during the first three months of pregnancy , making this a critical periodin development.  
T able9.2Sample Prenatal Environmental Conditions That Endanger a Child  
Maternal Factors Possible Effects on Embryo, Fetus, Newborn, or Y oung Child  
Malnutrition  
Low birth weight, malformations, less developed brain, greater  
vulnerability to disease  
Exposure to:Environmental toxins, X-rays,  
excessive stress  
Low birth weight, malformations, cancer, hyperactivity , irritability , feeding  
difficulties  
Legal and illegal drugs:Certain prescription  
drugs, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine,  
methamphetamine  
Inhibition of bone growth, hearing loss, low birth weight, fetal alcohol  
spectrum disorders (F ASD), intellectual disability, attention deficits in  
childhood, death  
Diseases:Heart and thyroid disease, diabetes,  
asthma, infectious diseases  
Blindness, deafness, intellectual disability, heart and other malformations,  
brain infection, spontaneous abortion, premature birth, low birth weight,  
death  
Sources:Centers for Disease Control (CDC), [9.54]; Doulatram et al., [9.66]; Maisto et al., [9.112]; Roozen et al., [9.134].  
Perhaps the most important—and generally avoidable—danger to a fetus comes from drugs, both legal and illegal. Nicotine and alcohol are major  
teratogens, environmental agents that cause damage during prenatal development. Mothers who smoke tobacco or drink alcohol during pregnancy have  
significantly higher rates of premature births, low-birth-weight infants, and fetal deaths. Their children also show increased behavior and cognitive  
problems (Doulatram et al., [9.66]; Roozen et al., [9.134]).  
As you can see in Figure9.8, heavy maternal drinking may lead to a cluster of serious abnormalities called fetal alcohol spectrum disor ders (F ASD).  
The most severe form of this disorder is known as fetal alcohol syndr ome (F AS). Recent research suggests that alcohol may leave chemical marks on  
DNA that abnormally turn off or on specific genes (Mason & Zhou, [9.1 14]). In addition, children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy are more  
likely to be obese as adolescents, perhaps because in-utero exposure to nicotine changes a part of the brain that increases a preference for fatty foods  
(Haghighi et al., [9.86], [9.85]).  
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Figure 9.8 Fetal alcohol  
syndromePrenatal exposure to  
alcohol can result in fetal  
alcohol spectrum disorders  
(F ASD). The most severe form  
of F ASD, called fetal alcohol  
syndr ome (F AS), causes facial  
abnormalities and stunted  
growth. But the most disabling  
features of F AS are brain  
damage and neurobehavioral  
problems, ranging from  
hyperactivity and learning  
disabilities to intellectual  
disability , depression, and  
psychoses (Centers for Disease  
Control, [9.54]; Doulatram et  
al., [9.66]; Roozen et al.,  
[9.134]).  
The pregnant mother obviously plays a primary role in prenatal development because her nutrition, her health, and almost everything she ingests can  
cross the placental barrier (a better term might be placental sieve). However, the father also plays a role. A father's smoking can pollute the air the  
mother breathes—an epigenetic environmental factor. Genetically , the father can transmit heritable diseases, and alcohol, opiates, cocaine, various gases,  
lead, pesticides, and industrial chemicals can all damage sperm (Finegersh et al., [9.71]; Ji et al., [9.103]; V assoler et al., [9.161]). Likewise, children of  
older fathers may be at higher risk of a range of mental difficulties, including attention deficits, bipolar disorder, autism, and schizophrenia (D'Onofrio et  
al., [9.60]; McGrath et al., [9.116]).  
Early Childhood Development  
What is learned in the cradle, lasts to the grave.  
—French proverb  
Like the prenatal period, early childhood is a time of rapid physical development. Let's explore three major areas of change in early childhood: brain,  
motor, and sensory/per ceptual development.  
Brain Development  
Our brains and other parts of the nervous system grow faster than any other part of the body during both prenatal development and the first two years of  
life, as illustrated in Concept Organizer9.1. This brain development and learning occur primarily because neurons grow in size. Also, the number of  
dendrites, as well as the extent of their connections, increases (Bornstein et al., [9.43]; Garrett, [9.79]; Swaab, [9.154]).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 9.1 Brain Development  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to  
study it CAREFULL Y!  
The brain undergoes dramatic changes from conception through the first few years of life. Keep in mind, however, that our brains continue to change  
and develop throughout our life span.  
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Motor Development  
Compared to the hidden, internal changes in brain development, the orderly emergence of active movement skills, known as motor development, is  
easily observed and measured. A newborn's first motor abilities are limited to r eflexes, or involuntary responses to stimulation (Chapter 2). For example,  
the rooting reflex occurs when something touches a baby's cheek—the infant will automatically turn its head, open its mouth, and root for a nipple.  
Along with these innate simple reflexes, the infant also soon begins to show voluntary control over the movement of various body parts (Figure9.9).  
Thus, a helpless newborn, who cannot even lift her head, is soon transformed into an active toddler capable of crawling, walking, and climbing. In fact,  
babies are highly motivated to begin walking because they can move faster than when crawling, and they get better with practice (Adolph & Berger,  
[9.23]; Berger, [9.39]). Keep in mind that motor development is largely due to natural maturation, but, like brain development, it can be affected by  
environmental influences, such as disease and neglect.  
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Figure 9.9 Milestones in motor developmentThe acquisition and progression of motor skills,  
from chin up to walking up steps, is generally the same for all children, but the environment  
and personal experiences also play a role. In short, each child will follow his or her own  
personal timetable (Adolph & Berger, [9.23]; Berger, [9.39]).  
Certain cultural differences in child-rearing also can explain some accelerated or delayed onset ages of major physical milestones, such as walking and  
crawling. In some regions of the world, for example, infants begin sitting, standing, and walking at earlier than expected ages due to special babyswimming activities, or because their caregivers vigorously massage and exercise them as part of daily bathing routines, stretching their limbs, tossing  
them into the air , and propping them into sitting and walking positions (Karasik et al., [9.104]; Sigmundsson et al., [9.17]; Super & Harkness, [9.151]).  
Interestingly , the relatively recent practice in the United States of putting infants to sleep on their backs rather than their stomachs has resulted in delayed  
onset of crawling.  
Sensory and Perceptual Development  
At birth, and during the final trimester of pregnancy, the developing child's senses are quite advanced (Bardi et al., [9.33]; Levine & Munsch, [9.108];  
National Institutes of Health, [9.121]). Research shows that a newborn infant prefers his or her mother's voice, providing evidence that the developing  
fetus can hear sounds outside the mother's body (Lee & Kisilevsky , [9.107]; V on Hofsten, [9.163]). This raises the intriguing possibility of fetal learning,  
and some have advocated special stimulation for the fetus as a way of increasing intelligence, creativity, and general alertness (Jarvis, [9.102]; V an de  
Carr & Lehrer, [9.159]).  
Interestingly , a newborn can smell most odors and distinguish between sweet, salty , and bitter tastes. Breast-fed newborns also recognize the odor of  
their mother's milk compared to other mothers' milk, formula, and other substances (Allam et al., [9.27]; Nishitani et al., [9.122]). Similarly, newborns'  
sense of touch and pain is highly developed, as evidenced by reactions to circumcision and to heel pricks for blood testing, and by the fact that their pain  
reactions are lessened by the smell of their own mother's milk (Nishitani et al., [9.122]; Rodkey & Riddell, [9.132]; Vinall & Grunau, [9.162]).  
The newborn's sense of vision, however, is poorly developed. At birth, an infant is estimated to have vision between 20/200 and 20/600 (Haith &  
Benson, [9.87]). Imagine what the infant's visual life is like: The level of detail you see at 200 or 600 feet (if you have 20/20 vision) is what an infant  
sees at 20 feet. W ithin the first few months, vision quickly improves, and by 6 months it is 20/100 or better . At 2 years, visual acuity is nearly at the adult  
level of 20/20 (Courage & Adams, [9.57]).  
Scientific Research with Infants  
At this point, are you wondering how psychologists conduct research with infants—especially before they can even talk? One of the earliest  
experimenters, Robert Fantz (1956, 1963), designed a “looking chamber” to find out what infants can see and what holds their attention. Babies are  
placed on their backs inside the chamber facing a lighted “testing” area above them. Using this apparatus, Fantz and his colleagues measured how long  
infants stared at various stimuli. They found that infants prefer complex rather than simple patterns and pictures of faces rather than pictures of nonfaces  
(Figure9.10).  
Figure 9.10 Infant visual preferences  
Other researchers use newborns' heart rates and certain innate abilities, such as the sucking reflex, to study learning and perceptual development  
(Bendersky & Sullivan, 2007; Bornstein et al., [9.43]). For example, to study the sense of smell, researchers measure changes in newborns' heart rates  
when odors are presented. Presumably, if they can smell one odor but not another , their heart rates will change in the presence of the first but not the  
second. As you may recall from Chapter 4, what all of these researchers are measuring is habituation—decreased responsiveness after repeated  
stimulation. Brain scans, such as fMRI, MRI, and CT s, also help developmental scientists detect changes in infants' brains.  
Adolescence  
Adolescents are not monsters. They are just people trying to learn how to make it among the adults in the world, who are pr obably not so sure  
themselves.  
—V ir ginia Satir (American Author , Social W orker)  
Adolescenceis the loosely defined transition period of development between childhood and adulthood. In the United States, it roughly corresponds to the  
teenage years. However , the concept of adolescence and its meaning vary greatly across cultures ( Figure9.11).  
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Figure 9.11 Ready for  
responsibility?Adolescence is  
not a universal concept. Unlike  
the United States and other  
W estern nations, some  
nonindustrialized countries have  
no need for a slow transition  
from childhood to adulthood;  
children simply assume adult  
responsibilities as soon as  
possible.  
Adolescence officially begins with puberty, the period of time when we mature sexually and become capable of reproduction. And one of the clearest  
and most dramatic physical signs of puberty is the growth spurt, which is characterized by rapid increases in height, weight, and skeletal growth ( Figure  
9.12), along with significant changes in reproductive structures and sexual characteristics. Maturation and hormone secretion cause rapid development of  
the ovaries, uterus, and vagina and the onset of menstruation (menarche) in the adolescent female. In the adolescent male, the testes, scrotum, and penis  
develop, and he experiences his first ejaculation (spermar che). The testes and ovaries produce hormones that lead to the development of secondary sex  
characteristics, such as the growth of pubic hair, deepening of the voice and growth of facial hair in men, and growth of breasts in women ( Figure9.13).  
Do you recall how changes in height and weight, breast development and menstruation for girls, and a deepening voice and beard growth for boys were  
such important milestones for you and your adolescent peers?  
Figure 9.12 Adolescent  
growth  
spurtNote the  
gender  
differences in  
height gain  
during puberty .  
Most girls are  
about two years  
ahead of boys in  
their growth  
spurt and are  
therefore taller  
than most boys  
between the  
ages of 10 and  
14.  
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Figure 9.13 Secondary sex characteristicsComplex physical changes in puberty primarily  
result from hormones secreted from the ovaries and testes, the pituitary gland in the brain, and  
the adrenal glands near the kidneys.  
Puberty has another physical effect that is far less dramatic than changes in secondary sex characteristics and the growth spurt but is still very  
interesting. Have you ever wondered why teenagers seem to sleep so much? Researchers have found that puberty is triggered by changes in the brain,  
including the release of certain hormones, which occurs only during periods of deep sleep(D'Ambrosio & Redline, [9.59]; Shaw et al., [9.143]). This  
finding suggests that getting adequate, deep (slow-wave) sleep (see Chapter 5) during adolescence is an essential part of activating the reproductive  
system. Can you see why the increasing number of sleep problems in adolescents is a cause for concern and why parents should actually be encouraging  
“oversleeping” in their teenagers?  
The T eenage Brain  
As you recall, the brain and other parts of the nervous system grow faster than any other part of the body during both prenatal development and the first  
two years of life. In contrast to the rapid synaptic growth experienced in the earlier years, the adolescent's brain actively destroys (prunes) unneeded  
connections. Although it may seem counterintuitive, this pruning actually improves brain functioning by making the remaining connections between  
neurons more efficient. Perhaps more surprising, full maturity of the frontal lobes is not accomplished until the mid-20s ( Figure9.14). Do you recall  
your teenage years as a time of exaggerated self-consciousness, feelings of special uniqueness, and risky behaviors? Psychologists now believe these  
effects may be largely due to your less-than-fully-developed frontal lobes (Casey et al., [9.52]; Fuhrmann et al., [9.76]; Pokhrel et al., [9.127])!  
Figure 9.14 Changes in the brain  
Adulthood  
When does adulthood begin? In most Western cultures, children are typically considered adults once they graduate from high school or college or get  
their first stable job and become self-sufficient. For greater precision and research purposes, scientists commonly divide adulthood into at least three  
periods: emerging/young adulthood (ages 20–45), middle adulthood (ages 45–60), and late adulthood (ages 60 to death).  
Emerging/Y oung Adulthood  
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Although young adulthood is generally considered to begin at age 20, many developmental psychologists have added a new term, emerging adulthood,  
to refer to the time from the end of adolescence through the first few years of the young-adult stage, approximately ages 18–25. This stage, which is  
found primarily in modern cultures, is characterized by the search for a stable job, self-sufficiency , and/or marriage and parenthood, along with five  
distinguishing features (Arnett, [9.28], [9.29]; Munsey , [9.1 19]; Newman & Newman, [9.120]):  
1.Identity exploration—young people decide who they are and what they want out of life.  
2.Instability—a time marked by multiple changes in residence and relationships.  
3.Self-focus—freed from social obligations and commitments to others, young people at this stage are focused on what they want and need before  
constraints of marriage, children, and career .  
4.Feeling in-between—although taking responsibility for themselves, they still feel in the middle between adolescence and adulthood.  
5.Age of possibilities—a time of optimism and belief that their lives will be better than those of their parents.  
During emerging adulthood, some individuals experience modest increases in height and muscular development, and most of us find this to be a time of  
maximum strength, sharp senses, and overall stamina. However, a decline in strength and speed becomes noticeable in the 30s, and our hearing starts to  
decline as early as our late teens.  
Middle Adulthood  
Many physical changes during young adulthood happen so slowly that most people don't notice them until they enter their late 30s or early 40s. For  
example, around the age of 40, we first experience difficulty in seeing things close up and after dark, thinning and graying of our hair, wrinkling of our  
skin, and gradual loss in height coupled with weight gain (Landsberg et al., [9.106]; Saxon et al., [9.139]).  
For women ages 45–55, menopause, the cessation of the menstrual cycle, is the second major life milestone in physical development. The decreased  
production of estrogen (the dominant female hormone) produces certain physical changes, including decreases in some types of cognitive and memory  
skills (Doty et al., [9.65]; Hussain et al., [9.99]; Pines, [9.126]). However, the popular belief that menopause (or “the change of life”) causes serious  
psychological mood swings is not supported by current research. In fact, younger women are more likely to report irritability and mood swings, whereas  
women at midlife generally report positive reactions to aging and the end of the menstrual cycle. They're also less likely to have negative experiences  
such as headaches (Sievert et al., [9.146]; Sugar et al., [9.150]).  
In contrast to women, men experience a more gradual decline in hormone levels, and most men can father children until their 70s or 80s. Physical  
changes such as unexpected weight gain, decline in sexual responsiveness, loss of muscle strength, and graying or loss of hair may lead some men to  
feel depressed and to question their life progress. They often see these alterations as a biological signal of aging and mortality. Such physical and  
psychological changes in men are generally referred to as the male climacteric(or andropause). However , the popular belief that almost all men go  
through a deeply disruptive midlife crisis, experiencing serious dissatisfaction with their work and personal relationships, is lar gely a myth.  
Late Adulthood  
After middle age, most physical changes in development are gradual and occur in the heart and arteries and in the sensory receptors. Cardiac output (the  
volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute) decreases, whereas blood pressure increases due to the thickening and stiffening of arterial walls.  
V isual acuity and depth perception decline, hearing acuity lessens (especially for high-frequency sounds), smell sensitivity decreases, and some decline  
in cognitive and memory skills occurs (Dupuis et al., [9.68]; Fletcher & Rapp, [9.72]; Newman & Newman, [9.120]).  
Why do we go through so many physical changes? What causes us to age and die? Setting aside aging and deaths resulting from disease, abuse, or  
neglect, known as secondary aging, let's focus on primary aging(gradual, inevitable age-related changes in physical and mental processes).  
According to cellular-clock theory, primary aging is genetically controlled. Once the ovum is fertilized, the program for aging and death is set and  
begins to run. Researcher Leonard Hayflick ([9.93], [9.94]) found that human cells seem to have a built-in life span. After about 100 doublings of  
laboratory-cultured cells, they cease to divide. Based on this limited number of cell divisions, Hayflick suggests that we humans have a maximum life  
span of about 120 years—we reach the Hayflick limit. Why? One answer may be that small structures on the tips of our chromosomes, called telomer es,  
shorten each time a cell divides. After about 100 replications, the telomeres are too short and the cells can no longer divide (Broer et al., [9.50]; Hayashi  
et al., [9.92]; Rode et al., [9.131]).  
The second major explanation of primary aging is wear-and-tear theory. Like any machine, repeated use and abuse of our organs and cell tissues cause  
our human bodies to simply wear out over time.  
The Brain in Late Adulthood  
What about changes in the brain in later years? The public and most researchers long believed aging was inevitably accompanied by declining cognitive  
abilities and widespread death of neurons in the brain. Although this decline does happen with degenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD), it is  
no longer believed to be an inevitable part of normal aging (Hillier & Barrow, [9.97]; Whitbourne & Whitbourne, [9.167]). Furthermore, age-related  
cognitive problems are not on a continuum with AD. That is, normal forgetfulness does not mean that serious dementia is around the corner.  
Aging does seem to take its toll on the speedof information processing (Chapter 7). Decreased speed of processing may reflect problems with encoding  
(putting information into long-term storage) and r etrieval(getting information out of storage). If memory is like a filing system, older people may have  
more filing cabinets, and it may take them longer to initially file and later retrieve information.  
Although mental speed declines with age, general mental abilities are largely unaffected (Carey , [9.51]; Ramscar et al., [9.129]; Whitbourne &  
Whitbourne, [9.167]). Have you noticed that older returning students often do as well as or better than their younger counterparts in college classes?  
Their superior performance is likely due to their generally greater academic motivation, but it also reflects the importance of prior knowledge. Cognitive  
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psychologists have clearly demonstrated that the more people know , the easier it is for them to lay down new memories (Goldstein, [9.83]; Matlin,  
[9.1 15]). Older students, for instance, generally find this chapter on development easier to master than younger students. Their interactions with children  
and greater accumulated knowledge about life changes create a framework on which to hang new information.  
In short, the more you know , the more you can learn. Furthermore, gaining more education and having an intellectually challenging life may help you  
stay mentally sharp in your later years—another reason for going to college and engaging in life-long learning (Branco et al., [9.48]; Huang & Zhou,  
[9.98]; Sobral et al., [9.147]).  
Ageism  
Unfortunately , television, magazines, movies, and advertisements generally portray aging as a time of balding and graying hair, sagging body parts, poor  
vision, hearing loss, and, of course, no sex life. Can you see how our personal fears of aging and death, combined with these negative media portrayals,  
contribute to our society's widespread ageism—prejudice and discrimination based on physical age?  
Ageism is also a big factor in job discrimination. According to the latest data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, almost 20% of Americans over  
the age of 65 are now working and delaying retirement—some out of desire but most because they need the money (Steverman, [9.19]). Although age  
discrimination in employment is illegal in the United States, two-thirds of older job seekers report experiencing it, and those who face such  
discrimination have significantly lower physical and emotional health, as well as greater declines in health, than those who do not (Applewhite, [9.1];  
Sutin et al., [9.152]). But the news about ageism and your professional career isn't all bad. Check out the following.  
Psychology and Y our Professional Success Does Ageism Matter?  
First the bad news: Did you know that many potential employers assume that older applicants are more likely to be burned out, absent due to illness, and  
reluctant to travel, as well as less creative and productive? If you're a young millennial (aged 18–34), you may not realize that many people, including  
potential employers, also criticize your group for “needing to have your hands held,” “acting entitled,” and having no “work ethic” (Applewhite, [9.1];  
Reade, [9.16]).  
Now for some good news: These and other stereotypes about older workers and millennials are seldom based on facts. For example, a recent large-scale  
analysis of scientific careers revealed that age is truly just a number! In this study, the researchers found that scientific success comes from a  
combination of elements, including intelligence, luck, personality , and a new element they called “Q” (Sinatra et al., [9.18]). This Q factor includes  
personal skills and strengths, as well as high levels of drive, motivation, openness to new ideas, and ability to work well with others (Carey, [9.3]). (As  
you can see, many of these same traits reflect our text's two central themes, a growth mindsetand grit—composed of passion and perseverance in pursuit  
of long-term goals.)  
And some modestly good news comes from recent changes in those previously mentioned negative media and advertising portrayals of older people.  
Marketing experts have noted the large number of aging baby boomers and are now producing a few ads with a more positive and accurate portrayal of  
aging as a time of vigor, interest, and productivity . And, as noted in this chapter and in Chapter 2, our brains are constantly changing, and our cognitive  
abilities and overall achievements can grow and improve throughout our life span (see Figure9.15).  
Figure 9.15 Grit in action!  
As you've seen throughout this text, thanks to grit  
(passion and perseverance) we can all grow and  
improve throughout our life span, as demonstrated by  
the achievements of people like Justices Ruth Bader  
Ginsburg and Antonin Scalia of the U.S. Supreme  
Court. Justice Scalia served from 1986 until his death in  
2016, just shy of his 80th birthday . For decades Justice  
Scalia was the leading conservative voice on the Court.  
In her younger years, Justice Ginsburg worked  
tirelessly as a staunch courtroom advocate. Now in her  
80s, she serves as a leading liberal voice on the  
Supreme Court.  
Fun fact: Despite their diametrically opposed political  
and legal philosophies, Justice Scalia and Justice  
Ginsburg had a great deal of mutual respect for one  
another and were known to be very close friends.  
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Retrieval Practice 9.2 Physical Development  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B,  
will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Define behavioral genetics.  
2\.   
T eratogens are ________.  
a. maternal defects that cause damage during neonatal development.  
b. factors that cause damage during prenatal development.  
c. popular children's toys that studies have shown cause damage during early childhood development.  
d. environmental diseases that cause damage during early childhood development.  
3\.   
________is the first stage of prenatal development, which begins with conception and ends with implantation in the uterus (the first two weeks).  
a. The embryonic period  
b. The germinal period  
c. The critical period  
d. None of these options  
4\.   
The clearest and most physical sign of puberty is the ________, characterized by rapid increases in height, weight, and skeletal growth.  
a. menses  
b. spermarche  
c. growth spurt  
d. age of fertility  
5\.   
Some employers are reluctant to hire older workers (50 years of age and older) because of a generalized belief that they are sickly and will take too  
much time off. This is an example of ________.  
a. discrimination  
b. prejudice  
c. ageism  
d. all of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you discovered that the prefrontal cortex of the adolescent's brain is one of the later areas to develop. Review what you learned in  
Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations) about the higher-order functions of the frontal lobes. Provide an example of adolescent behavior  
that might be explained by the slower development of this area of the brain.  
.  
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9.3 Cognitive Development  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the basic theories of cognitive development and how cognition changes over the life span.  
•Explainthe roles of schemas, assimilation, and accommodation in cognitive development.  
•Describethe major characteristics of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development.  
•ComparePiaget's theory of cognitive development to V ygotsky's.  
Just as a child's body and physical abilities change, his or her way of knowing and perceiving the world also grows and changes.  
Jean Piaget [pee-ah-ZHA Y] provided some of the first great demonstrations of how children develop thinking and reasoning abilities  
(Piaget, [9.125]). He showed that an infant begins at a cognitively “primitive” level and that intellectual growth progresses in distinct  
stages, motivated by an innate need to know .  
T o appreciate Piaget's contributions, we need to consider three major concepts: schemas, assimilation, and accommodation. Schemas  
are the most basic units of intellect. They act as patterns that organize our interactions with the environment, like an architect's  
drawings or a builder's blueprints. For most of us, a common, shared schema for a car would likely be “a moving object with wheels  
and seats for passengers.” However, we also develop unique schemas based on differing life experiences (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Do Y ou Have an Artistic Schema?  
Study the “impossible figure” to the right, and then try drawing this figure without tracing it. Students with artistic training generally  
find it relatively easy to reproduce, whereas the rest of us find it very hard or “impossible.” This is because we lack the necessary  
artistic schema and cannot assimilate what we see. With practice and training, we could accommodate the new information and  
easily draw the figure.  
In the first few weeks of life, the infant apparently has several schemasbased on innate reflexes such as sucking and grasping. These  
schemas are primarily motor activities and may be little more than stimulus-and-response mechanisms—the nipple is presented, and  
the baby sucks. Soon, other schemas emerge. The infant develops a more detailed schema for eating solid food, a different schema  
for the concepts of “mother” and “father ,” and so on.  
Assimilationand accommodationare the two major processes by which schemas grow and change over time. Assimilationis the  
process of absorbing new information into existing schemas. For instance, infants use their sucking schema not only in sucking  
nipples, but also in sucking blankets and fingers. In accommodation, existing ideas are modified to fit new information.  
Accommodation generally occurs when new information or stimuli cannot be assimilated. New schemas are developed or old  
schemas are changed to better fit with the new information. An infant's first attempt to eat solid food with a spoon is a good example  
of accommodation (Figure9.16).  
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Figure 9.16 AccommodationWhen  
feeding from a spoon, infants  
initially try to suck on the  
spoon—an example of  
assimilation. However, when  
that doesn't work, they learn  
to shape their lips around the  
spoon and pull the food into  
their mouths—an example of  
accommodation.  
Stages of Cognitive Development  
According to Piaget, all children go through approximately the same four stages of cognitive development, regardless of the culture  
in which they live (Step-by-Step Diagram9.2). Piaget also believed that none of these stages can be skipped because skills acquired  
at earlier stages are essential to mastery at later stages (Berger, [9.39]).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 9.2 Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Step 1 Sensorimotor stage  
(birth to age 2)  
Limits  
•Lacks “significant” language and object permanence (understanding  
that things continue to exist even when not seen, heard, or felt)  
Abilities  
•Uses senses and motor skills to explore and develop cognitively  
Example  
•Children at this stage like to explore and play with their food.  
Step 2 Preoperational stage  
(ages 2 to 7)  
Limits  
•Cannot perform mental “operations” (lacks reversibility and  
conservation)  
•Egocentric thinking (inability to consider another's point of view)  
•Animistic thinking (believing all things are living)  
Abilities  
•Has significant language and thinks symbolically  
Example  
•Children at this stage often believe the moon follows them.  
Step 3 Concrete operational  
stage (ages 7 to 1 1)  
Limits  
•Cannot think abstractly and hypothetically  
•Thinking tied to concrete, tangible objects and events  
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Abilities  
•Can perform “operations” on concrete objects  
•Understands conservation (realizing that changes in shape or  
appearance can be reversed)  
•Less egocentric  
Example  
•Children at this stage begin to question the existence of Santa.  
Step 4 Formal operational  
stage (ages 1 1 and over)  
Limits  
•Adolescent egocentrism at the beginning of this stage, with related  
problems (imaginary audience and personal fable.)  
Abilities  
•Can think abstractly and hypothetically  
Example  
•Children at this stage generally show great concern for physical  
appearance.  
Sensorimotor Stage  
The sensorimotor stagelasts from birth until “significant” language acquisition (about age 2). During this time, children explore the  
world and develop their schemas primarily through their senses and motor activities—hence the term sensorimotor. One important  
concept that infants are thought to lack at the beginning of the sensorimotor stage is object permanence—an understanding that  
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched (Figure9.17).  
Figure 9.17 Object permanence  
Piaget believed that infants younger than about 8 months of age lack object permanence. For instance, in the Piagetian view,  
the child in the first two photos believes the toy no longer exists once it is blocked from sight. This is supposedly shown by  
the fact that the child does not try to find the hidden object.  
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In contrast, the older child in the third photo knows that the object still exists even if it is hidden—as shown by her attempt to  
seek out the toy under the sofa. Piaget would have said that this child is demonstrating that she has formed a mental  
representation (a schema) of the object and has acquired a recognition of object permanence. Note, however, that modern  
researchers believe that object permanence appears much earlier than 8 months. Infants may fail to look for hidden objects  
because they don't know how to look for them, not because they believe the objects no longer exist (Baillargeon & DeV os,  
[9.31]; Berger, [9.39]; Gerson & W oodward, [9.81]). In other words, Piaget may have mistaken infants' motor incompetence  
for conceptual incompetence.  
Preoperational Stage  
During the preoperational stage(roughly ages 2 to 7), language advances significantly , and the child begins to think symbolically—  
using symbols, such as words, to represent concepts. Three other qualities characterize this stage: inability to perform mental  
operations, animism,and egocentrism.  
1.Inability to perform mental operations. Piaget labeled this period “preoperational” because the child lacks operations,meaning  
the ability to perform internalized mental actions. Lack of mental operations means, among other things, that preoperational  
children do not understand the concept of conservation—the principle that certain characteristics (such as volume) stay the same  
even though appearances may change. For instance, a preoperational child is likely to think that milk poured into a tall, thin glass  
is “more” than the same amount poured into a short, wide glass. If you'd like to perform your own informal tests of conservation,  
see the following Try This Y ourself.  
2.Animism. During this stage, children generally believe objects, such as the moon, trees, clouds, and bars of soap, have motives,  
feelings, and intentions (“the moon follows me when I walk,” “dark clouds are angry ,” and “soap sinks to the bottom of the  
bathtub because it is tired”). Animismrefers to the belief that all things are living (or animated).  
3.Egocentrism. Children at this stage are egocentric, which refers to the preoperational child's limited ability to distinguish  
between his or her own perspective and someone else's. Egocentrism is not the same as “selfishness.” Preschoolers who move in  
front of you to get a better view of the TV , or repeatedly ask questions while you are talking on the telephone, are not being  
selfish. They are demonstrating their natural limits and egocentric thought processes. Children in this stage naively assume that  
others see, hear, feel, and think exactly as they do. Consider the following telephone conversation between a 3-year-old, who is at  
home, and her mother, who is at work:  
MOTHER: Emma, is that you?  
EMMA: (Nods silently .)  
MOTHER: Emma, is Daddy there? May I speak to him?  
EMMA: (T wice nods silently .)  
Try This Y ourself Putting Piaget to the T est  
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If you have access to children in the preoperational or concrete operational stages, try some of the following experiments, which  
researchers use to test Piaget's various forms of conservation. The equipment is easily obtained, and you will find their responses  
fascinating. Keep in mind that this should be done as a game. The child should not feel that he or she is failing a test or making a  
mistake.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Based on their responses, are the children you tested in the preoperational or concrete stage?  
2\.   
If you repeat the same tests with each child, do their answers change? Why or why not?  
Egocentric preoperational children fail to understand that the phone caller cannot see their nodding heads. Charming as this is,  
preoperational children's egocentrism also sometimes leads them to believe their “bad thoughts” caused their sibling or parent to get  
sick or that their misbehavior caused their parents' marital problems. Because they think the world centers on them, they often cannot  
separate reality from what goes on inside their own heads.  
Concrete Operational Stage  
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At approximately age 7, children enter the concrete operational stage. During this time, many important thinking skills emerge.  
However, as the name implies, thinking tends to be limited to concr ete, tangible objects and events. Y oungsters in this stage are less  
egocentric in their thinking than preoperational children and become capable of true logical thought. As most parents know, children  
now stop believing in Santa Claus because they logically conclude that one man can't deliver presents to everyone in one night.  
Because they are capable of thinking logically, concrete operational children recognize that certain physical attributes remain  
unchanged although the outward appearance is altered. This understanding of conservation is a hallmark of children in the concrete  
stage.  
Formal Operational Stage  
The final period in Piaget's theory , the formal operational stage, typically begins around age 1 1. In this stage, children begin to apply  
their operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects. They become capable of hypothetical thinking (“What if?”),  
which allows systematic formulation and testing of concepts. Before filling out applications for part-time jobs, adolescents may think  
about possible conflicts with school and friends, the number of hours they want to work, and the kind of work for which they are  
qualified. Formal operational thinking also allows the adolescent to construct a well-reasoned argument based on hypothetical  
concepts and logical processes. Consider the following argument:  
1.If you hit a glass with a feather , the glass will break.  
2.Y ou hit the glass with a feather .  
What is the logical conclusion? The correct answer, “The glass will break,” is contrary to fact and direct experience. Therefore, the  
child in the concrete operational stage would have difficulty with this task, whereas the formal operational thinker understands that  
this problem is about abstractions that need not correspond to the real world.  
Along with the benefits of this cognitive style come several problems. Adolescents in the early stages of the formal operational  
period demonstrate a type of egocentrism different from that of the preoperational child (see Figure9.18 and the following Try This  
Y ourself). Adolescents certainly recognize that others have unique thoughts and perspectives. However, they may fail to differentiate  
between what they are thinking and what others are thinking. If they change hairstyles or fail to make the sports team, they may be  
overly concerned about how others will react. Instead of considering that everyone is equally wrapped up in his or her own  
appearance, concerns, and plans, they tend to believe that they are the center of others' thoughts and attentions. David Elkind ([9.69],  
[9.70]) referred to this as the imaginary audience.  
Figure 9.18 Adolescent egocentrism or  
narcissism?Piaget describes most children  
and adolescents as being egocentric, and  
egocentrism is a major characteristic of  
narcissism, which is defined as having an  
excessive interest in or admiration of  
oneself. Consider the growing popularity of  
taking and posting self-portraits (“selfies”)  
on social media. Have you ever wondered if  
this practice might increase narcissism?  
Research on this topic has found that  
narcissistic individuals do in fact take and  
post more “selfies” and that these actions  
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have a self-reinforcing effect that maintains  
the narcissist's positive self-views (Halpern  
et al., [9.88]).  
Try This Y ourself Reliving Y our Own Adolescent Egocentrism  
Do these descriptions of the imaginary audience and personal fable ring true for you? If so, do you now understand how these beliefs  
might help explain some of the problems and challenges you faced in adolescence? As implied in this photo, many teens have  
difficulty accepting comfort and support from parents due to their belief that no one has ever felt or experienced what they have. One  
young woman remembered being very upset in middle school when her mother tried to comfort her over the loss of an important  
relationship. “I felt like she couldn't possibly know how it felt—no one could. I couldn't believe that anyone had ever suffered like  
this or that things would ever get better .” Best advice for parents? Have patience and be comforting and reassuring. T eenagers whose  
parents use harsh verbal discipline (yelling or making serious threats) show more symptoms of depression and more behavior  
problems (lying, trouble in school, fighting with peers) (W ang & Kenny , [9.166]).  
In addition to believing they are special and unique and that others are always watching and evaluating them (the imaginary  
audience), adolescents also tend to believe they are invulnerable and that life's normal problems, difficulties, and dangers do not  
apply to them. Sadly , these feelings of special uniqueness and invulnerability , known as the personal fable,are associated with  
several forms of risk taking, such as engaging in sexual intercourse without protection, driving dangerously , indoor tanning, and  
experimenting with drugs (Banerjee et al., [9.32]; Landicho et al., [9.105]). Adolescents apparently recognize the dangers of risky  
activities, but they believe the rules and statistics just don't apply to them. Recall from the discussion earlier that psychologists now  
believe these effects may be largely due to the teen's less-than-fully-developed frontal lobes (Casey et al., [9.52]; Pokhrel et al.,  
[9.127]).  
In sum, the imaginary audience apparently results from an inability to differentiate the self from others, whereas the personal fable  
may be a product of differentiating too much. Thankfully , these two forms of adolescent egocentrism tend to decrease during later  
stages of the formal operational period.  
Evaluating Piaget: V ygotsky and Theory of Mind  
As influential as Piaget's account of cognitive development has been, there are two major criticisms. First, research shows that Piaget  
may have underestimated young children's cognitive development. As we discussed earlier, infants seem to develop concepts like  
object permanence much earlier than Piaget suggested. As you recall, Piaget also believed that infancy and early childhood were a  
time of extreme egocentrism, in which children have little or no understanding of the perspective of others. However, research finds  
that empathy develops at a relatively young age (Figure9.19). Even newborn babies tend to cry in response to the cry of another  
baby (Diego & Jones, [9.63]; Geangu et al., [9.80]). And, preschoolers will adapt their speech by using shorter, simpler expressions  
when talking to 2-year-olds than when talking with adults.  
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Figure 9.19 Are preoperational children  
always egocentric?Some toddlers and  
preschoolers clearly demonstrate empathy  
for other people. How does this ability to  
take another's perspective contradict  
Piaget's beliefs about egocentrism in very  
young children?  
Second, Piaget's model, like other stage theories, has been criticized for not sufficiently taking into account genetic and cultural  
differences (Newman & Newman, [9.120]; Shweder , [9.144]). During Piaget's time, the genetic influences on cognitive abilities  
were poorly understood, but as in the case of epigenetics, there has been a rapid explosion of information in this field in the last few  
years. In addition, formal education and specific cultural experiences can significantly affect cognitive development. Consider the  
following example from a researcher attempting to test the formal operational skills of a farmer in Liberia (Scribner, [9.142]):  
Rൾඌൾൺඋർඁൾඋ: All Kpelle men are rice farmers. Mr. Smith is not a rice farmer . Is he a Kpelle man?  
KඉൾඅඅൾFൺඋආൾඋ: I don't know the man. I have not laid eyes on the man myself.  
Instead of reasoning in the “logical” way of Piaget's formal operational stage, the Kpelle farmer reasoned according to his specific  
cultural and educational training, which apparently emphasized personal knowledge. Not knowing Mr. Smith, the Kpelle farmer did  
not feel qualified to comment on him. Thus, Piaget's theory may have underestimated the effect of culture on a person's cognitive  
functioning.  
Before going on, let's consider two prominent alternative views on cognitive development. In contrast to Piaget's focus on internal  
schemas, Russian psychologist Lev V ygotsky emphasized the sociocultural influences on a child's cognitive development (V ygotsky ,  
[9.164]). According to V ygotsky , children construct knowledge through their culture, language, and collaborative social interactions  
with more experienced thinkers (Mahn & John-Steiner, [9.109]; Scott, [9.141]; Y asnitsky , [9.168]). Unlike Piaget, V ygotsky also  
believed that adults play an essential instructor role in development and that this instruction is particularly helpful when it falls  
within a child's zone of proximal development (ZPD), described in Figure9.20.  
Figure 9.20 V ygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD)Have  
you heard of “instructional scaffolding”? This term refers to  
providing support during the learning process that is tailored to the  
needs of the student. V ygotsky was one of the first to apply the  
general idea of scaffolding to early cognitive development. He  
proposed that the most effective teaching focuses on tasks between  
those a learner can do without help (the lower limit) and those he or  
she cannot do even with help (the upper limit). In this middle, zone  
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of proximal development (ZPD), tasks and skills can be “stretched”  
to higher levels with the guidance and encouragement of a more  
knowledgeable person.  
In addition to Vgotsky's emphasis on the sociocultural influences in cognitive development, researchers have questioned why  
children in the preoperational stage cannot take another's point of view and how they eventually learn to do so. In response to these  
inquiries, an entire area of research has emerged regarding how young children think about their own minds and the minds of others.  
According to this research, children become less egocentric when they begin to understand that other people don't have the same  
thoughts and feelings that they do—an achievement called theory of mind (T oM)(Kuhnert et al., [9.7]; Mar et al., [9.11]; W eimer et  
al., [9.21]).  
One of the first experiments on ToM was conducted with children between the ages of 3 and 9 (Wimmer & Perner , [9.22]). The  
children first listen to a story about Maxi and how his mother moves some chocolate from a blue cupboard to a green one (see  
Figure9.21). When asked where Maxi will look for the chocolate, the children not only have to remember that the chocolate was  
moved but also, more importantly, must recognize that Maxi has no way of knowing that his mom moved the chocolate, since he was  
playing outside during the move. Therefore, Maxi will assume the chocolate is still in the blue cupboard. Interestingly, 3- and 4-yearolds often fail such tests, pointing to the actual position of the chocolate versus where Maxi will think it is. They apparently are  
unable to understand that although they know where the chocolate is, Maxi doesn't. On the other hand, most 6-year-olds succeed.  
Figure 9.21 Theory of mindEach child research participant is told a story about a boy named Maxi who watches while his mother  
places some chocolate she plans to use to make a cake in a blue cupboard (a). Maxi then goes out to play (b), and while he is outside  
his mother makes the cake and puts the leftover chocolate in a green cupboard (c). Then Maxi comes back in, wanting some  
chocolate (d). At this point, the researcher asks the child listening to the story not where the chocolate is, but which cupboard Maxi  
will look in.  
This type of experimentation supports Piaget's notion that young preoperational children are highly egocentric. But it goes on to  
explain that most children eventually do develop the understanding that their thoughts and feelings differ from those of others  
through a combination of maturation and social experiences. Can you see how the apparently simple task in Figure 9.21 actually  
requires a high level of thought? And why children who have difficulty in developing their T oM will find it difficult to engage in  
pretend play or understand why people do and say the things they do? Some researchers believe the lack of ToM also helps explain  
the problems with communication and social interactions typical of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)—two developmental disorders discussed in Chapter 10 (Cantio et al., [9.2]; Kuijper et al.,  
[9.8]; Peterson et al., [9.14]).  
Despite these alternative views and the direct criticisms of Piaget's theory, his contributions to psychology are enormous. As one  
scholar put it, “assessing the impact of Piaget on developmental psychology is like assessing the impact of Shakespeare on English  
literature or Aristotle on philosophy—impossible” (Beilin, [9.37], p. 191).  
Retrieval Practice 9.3 Cognitive Development  
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Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by  
looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
________was one of the first scientists to demonstrate that a child's intellect is fundamentally different from that of an adult.  
a. Baumrind  
b. Beck  
c. Piaget  
d. Elkind  
2\.   
Briefly explain how assimilation and accommodation differ .  
3\.   
A child who believes that trees have feelings is probably in the ________stage of development.  
a. sensorimotor  
b. preoperational  
c. egocentric  
d. concrete operational  
4\.   
The ability to think abstractly and hypothetically occurs in Piaget's ________stage.  
a. egocentric  
b. postoperational  
c. formal operational  
d. concrete operational  
5\.   
In V ygotsky's theory of cognitive development, the area between what children can accomplish on their own and what they can  
accomplish with the help of others who are more competent is called the ________.  
a. concrete operational area  
b. postoperational zone  
c. formal operational limits  
d. zone of proximal development  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), we discussed the functions of the lobes and structures of the brain. Name  
the brain lobes and/or structures most involved in Piaget's four stages of cognitive development—sensorimotor, preoperational,  
concrete operational, and formal operational.  
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9.4 Social-Emotional Development  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize how social-emotional factors affect development across the life span.  
•Reviewattachment and its contributions across the life span.  
•Describethe four main parenting styles.  
Along with physical and cognitive development, developmental psychologists also study the way social and emotional factors affect  
development over the life span. In this section, we focus on attachmentand parenting styles.  
Attachment  
An infant arrives in the world with a multitude of behaviors that encourage a strong bond of attachmentwith primary caregivers.  
Returning to our earlier discussion of the nature–nurture controversy, researchers who advocate the “nature” position suggest that  
newborn infants are biologically equipped with verbal and nonverbal behaviors (such as crying, clinging, and smiling) and imprinting  
(“following”) behaviors (such as crawling and walking after the caregiver) that elicit instinctive nurturing responses from the  
caregiver (Bowlby , [9.44], [9.45], [9.46]).  
Studies have found numerous benefits to a child's good attachment, including lower levels of aggressive behavior, fewer sleep  
problems, and less social withdrawal (Ding et al., [9.64]). But as was the sad case with Genie, discussed at the start of this chapter,  
some children never form appropriate, loving attachments. What happens to these children? Researchers have investigated this  
question by looking at children and adults who spent their early years in institutions without the stimulation and love of a regular  
caregiver , as well as those who lived at home but were physically isolated under abusive conditions.  
Tragically , infants raised in impersonal or abusive surroundings suffer from a number of problems. They seldom cry , coo, or babble;  
they become rigid when picked up; and they have few language skills. As for their social-emotional development, they tend to form  
shallow or anxious relationships. Some appear forlorn, withdrawn, and uninterested in their caretakers, whereas others seem insatiable  
in their need for affection. They also tend to show intellectual, physical, and perceptual deficiencies, along with increased  
susceptibility to infection and neurotic “rocking” and isolation behaviors. There are even cases where healthy babies who were wellfed and kept in clean diapers—but seldom held or stimulated—died from lack of attachment (Bowlby , [9.46]; Duniec & Raz, [9.67];  
Spitz & W olf, 1946). Some research suggests that childhood emotional abuse and neglect is as harmful, in terms of long-term mental  
problems, as physical and sexual abuse (Spinazzola et al., [9.148]).  
T ouch  
Harry Harlow and his colleagues ([9.90], [9.91]) also investigated the variables that might affect attachment. They created two types  
of wire-framed surrogate (substitute) “mother” monkeys: one covered by soft terry cloth and one left uncovered (Figure9.22). The  
infant monkeys were fed by either the cloth or the wire mother, but they otherwise had access to both mothers. The researchers found  
that the infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the soft, cloth surrogate—even when the wire surrogate was the one providing the  
food. In addition, monkeys “reared” by a cloth mother clung frequently to the soft material of their surrogate mother and developed  
greater emotional security and curiosity than did monkeys assigned to a wire mother.  
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Figure 9.22 Harlow's study and  
contact comfortAlthough  
Harlow's studies of attachment  
in infant monkeys would be  
considered unethical today , they  
did clearly demonstrate that  
contact comfort, and not feeding,  
is crucial to attachment.  
Thanks in part to Harlow's research, psychologists discovered that contact comfort, the pleasurable tactile sensations provided by a  
soft and cuddly “parent,” is one of the most important variables in attachment (Figure9.23). Further support comes from the fact that,  
as discussed in Chapter 4, hospitals now encourage “kangaroo care” for premature babies, which provides them with skin-to-skin  
contact with caregivers (Head, [9.96]; Metgud & Honap, [9.118]). For more information on how touch affects us—even as adults—  
see the following.  
Figure 9.23 The power of  
touchParents around the world  
tend to kiss, nuzzle, comfort, and  
respond to their children with  
lots of physical contact, which  
points out its vital role in infant  
development. It also provides  
support for the biological, nature  
argument for attachment.  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success The Power of T ouch  
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As we've just seen, contact comfort is critical for the physical and mental well-being of both monkeys and human infants. But did you  
know that the touch of others is an invaluable asset throughout our life span? Human touch has been repeatedly shown to be an  
effective way to solicit and provide social support (e.g., Robinson et al., [9.130]). It also can reduce the perception of pain, lower heart  
rate and blood pressure, and increase levels of oxytocin.  
Unfortunately , some individuals, such as elderly nursing home residents, often feel lonely and ostracized, and their unsatisfied desire  
for social touch can lead to “touch hunger” (Ben-Zeév , [9.38]; R ydé & Hjelm, [9.136]; Uvnäs-Moberg et al., [9.158]). Even something  
as simple as a hand massage can reduce disruptive behaviors in patients with dementia (Fu et al., [9.75]).  
Hugs appear to be a particularly effective way of touching (see the photo). In fact, one study found that people who get more frequent  
hugs are less susceptible to infection and experience less severe illness symptoms (Cohen et al., [9.55]). However, keep in mind that  
while hugs and other forms of loving touch can reduce stress and promote emotional well-being, uninvited touch from a stranger  
generally makes us uncomfortable or even (see photo) angry (Harjunen et al., [9.5]). Even a friendly pat on the back or “high five”  
may be too personal among strangers. When contemplating hugging or touching other people, it's wise to carefully monitor their  
physical reactions. Ask yourself questions such as “Do they relax and lean in when I try to hug them, or do they stiffen and move  
backward?” and “Do they initiate similar touching, or is it only one-sided?” It's always safer to ask, “W ould you like (or mind) a  
hug?”  
Moreover, touch of any kind is a particularly “touchy” situation in the workplace and with young children. The most loving and bestintentioned touch can be seen as a power play , as intimidating or aggressive, or as sexual harassment. The general rule is “Hands off!”  
And parents and caregivers are advised to teach children about “good touch” versus “bad touch” (Chapter 11).  
Ainsworth's Levels of Attachment  
Although physical contact between caregiver and child appears to be an innate, biological part of attachment, Mary Ainsworth and her  
colleagues ([9.24], [9.26]) discovered several differences in the type and level of human attachment (Figure9.24). Infants with a  
secure attachment style generally had caregivers who were sensitive and responsive to their signals of distress, happiness, and fatigue.  
In contrast, anxious/avoidant infants had caregivers who were aloof and distant, and anxious/ambivalent infants had inconsistent  
caregivers, who alternated between strong affection and indifference. Caregivers of disorganized/disoriented infants tended to be  
abusive or neglectful (Ainsworth, [9.24]; Ainsworth et al., [9.26]; Zeanah & Gleason, [9.169]).  
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Figure 9.24 Research on infant attachmentFor most children, parents are the earliest and most important factor in social  
development, and the attachment between parent and child is of particular interest to developmental psychologists.  
As a critical thinker, can you offer additional explanations for attachment, other than differences in caregivers? What about the infants  
themselves? Researchers have found that the temperament of the child also affects levels of attachment. An infant who is highly  
anxious and avoidant might not accept or respond to a caregiver's attempts to comfort and soothe. Furthermore, children and their  
parents share genetic tendencies, and attachment patterns may reflect these shared genes. Finally, critics have suggested that  
Ainsworth's research does not account for cultural variations, such as cultures that encourage infants to develop attachments to  
multiple caregivers (Rothbaum et al., [9.135]; van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, [9.160]).  
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Attachment Styles in Adulthood  
In addition to finding varying levels of infant attachment to parents, researchers have examined adult attachment patterns independent  
of their earlier infant patterns, with several interesting—and sometimes troublesome—results. For example, a secure attachment  
pattern is associated with higher subjective well-being (SWB), whereas adolescents and young adults with avoidant and anxious  
attachment patterns show more depressive symptoms (Desrosiers et al., [9.62]; Galinha et al., [9.77]). Another study found an  
association between pathological jealousy and the anxious/ambivalent style of attachment (Costa et al., [9.56]).  
Researchers also looked at how varying types of attachment as infants might shape our later adult styles of romantic love (Fraley &  
Roisman, [9.73]; Salzman et al., [9.138]; Sprecher & Fehr, [9.149]). If we developed a secure, anxious/ambivalent, anxious/avoidant,  
or disorganized/disoriented style as infants, we tend to follow these same patterns in our adult approach to intimacy and affection.  
Y oung adults who experienced either unresponsive or overintrusive parenting during childhood are more likely to avoid committed  
romantic relationships as adults (Dekel & Farber, [9.61]). Y ou can check your own romantic attachment style in the Try This Y ourself.  
However, keep in mind that it's always risky to infer causation from correlation (see Chapter 1). Even if early attachment experiences  
are correlated with our later relationships, they do not determine them. Throughout life, we can learn new social skills and different  
approaches to all our relationships.  
Try This Y ourself What's Y our Romantic Attachment Style?  
Thinking of your current and past romantic relationships, place a check next to the statement that best describes your feelings about  
relationships.  
________1.   
I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't often  
worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close.  
________2.   
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I am somewhat uncomfortable being close. I find it difficult to trust partners completely or to allow myself to depend on them. I am  
nervous when anyone gets close, and love partners often want me to be more intimate than is comfortable for me.  
________3.   
I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't stay with  
me. I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away.  
According to research, 55% of adults agree with item 1 (secure attachment), 25% choose number 2 (anxious/avoidant attachment),  
and 20% choose item 3 (anxious/ambivalent attachment) (adapted from Fraley & Shaver, [9.74]; Hazan & Shaver , [9.95]). Note that  
the percentages for these adult attachment styles do not perfectly match those in Figure 9.24b, partly because the  
disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern was not included in this measurement of adult romantic attachments.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Do your responses as an adult match your childhood attachment experiences?  
2\.   
Does your romantic attachment style negatively affect your present relationship? If so, how might you use this new information to  
make positive changes?  
Parenting Styles  
For your children, you may house their bodies but not their souls. For their souls dwell in the house of tomorrow , which you cannot  
visit, not even in your dreams. Y ou may strive to be like them, but seek not to make them like you.  
—Anonymous  
How much of our personality comes from the way our parents treat us as we're growing up? Researchers since the 1920s have studied  
the effects of parental behaviors and different methods of child-rearing on children's physical and mental development (Lee, [9.9];  
Whitbourne & Whitbourne, [9.167]) and mental health. One study found that teenagers whose parents used a controlling style—such  
as withholding love or creating feelings of guilt—later have more difficulty working out conflicts with friends and romantic partners  
(Oudekerk et al., [9.123]).  
Studies by (see Study Tip) Diana Baumrind ([9.35], [9.36]) found that parenting styles could be reliably divided into four broad  
patterns—permissive-neglectful, permissive-indulgent, authoritarian, and authoritative—which can be differentiated by their degree  
of contr ol/demandingness (C)and warmth/responsiveness (W)(T able9.3). See the Study Tip.  
T able9.3Parenting Styles  
Parenting  
Style  
Description Example Effect on Children  
Permissiveneglectful  
(low C, low  
W)  
Parents make few demands, with little  
structure or monitoring (low C). They also  
show little interest or emotional support; may  
be actively rejecting (low W).  
“I don't care about you  
—or what you do.”  
Children tend to have poor social skills and little  
self-control (being overly demanding and  
disobedient).  
Permissiveindulgent  
(low C, high  
W)  
Parents set few limits or demands (low C), but  
are highly involved and emotionally connected  
(high W).  
“I care about you—  
and you're free to do  
what you like!”  
Children often fail to learn respect for others and  
tend to be impulsive, immature, and out of  
control.  
Authoritarian  
(high C, low  
W)  
Parents are rigid and punitive (high C), but  
low on warmth and responsiveness (low W).  
“I don't care what you  
want. Just do it my  
way , or else!”  
Children tend to be easily upset, moody, and  
aggressive and often fail to learn good  
communication skills.  
Authoritative  
(high C, high  
W)  
Parents generally set and enforce firm limits  
(high C), while being highly involved, tender ,  
and emotionally supportive (high W).  
“I really care about  
you, but there are  
rules, and you need to  
be responsible.”  
Children become self-reliant, self-controlled,  
high achieving, and emotionally well adjusted;  
also seem more content, goal oriented, friendly ,  
and socially competent.  
Sources:Baumrind, [9.36]; Berger, [9.39]; Bornstein et al., [9.43]; T opham et al., [9.157].  
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Study Tip  
The names of the last two parenting styles (authoritarian and authoritative) are very similar . An easy way to r emember and  
differentiate them is to notice the two Rs in authoRitaRian, and imagine a Rigid Ruler . Then note the last two T s in authoriT aT ive, and  
picture a T ender T eacher.  
As you might expect, authoritative parenting, which encourages independence but still places controls and limits on behavior, is  
generally the most beneficial for both parents and children (Gherasim et al., [9.82]; Gouveia et al., [9.84]; Rodriguez et al., [9.133]).  
Unfortunately , research has found a link between permissive parenting and college students' sense of “academic entitlement,” which  
in turn is associated with more perceived stress and poorer mental health among college students (Barton & Hirsh, [9.34]).  
Authoritarian parenting also is linked with increased behavior problems (Tavassolie et al., [9.156]).  
Cross-cultural and longitudinal studies also suggest that lack of parental warmth and/or parental rejection may have long-lasting  
negative effects (Friesen et al., [9.4]; Suizzo et al., 2016; Wu & Chao, 2011). The neglect and indifference shown by rejecting parents  
tend to be correlated with hostile, aggressive children who have a difficult time establishing and maintaining close relationships. As  
might be expected, these children are more likely to develop psychological problems that require professional intervention.  
Evaluating Baumrind's Research  
Before you conclude that the authoritative pattern is the only way to raise successful children, you should know that many children  
raised in the other styles also become caring, cooperative adults. Criticism of Baumrind's findings generally falls into three areas:  
1.Child temperament. Research shows that a child's unique temperament may affect the parents' chosen parenting style, just as the  
parenting style may shape a child's temperament (Bradley & Corwyn, 2008; Miller et al., 2011; Pitzer et al., [9.15]). In other  
words, the parents of mature and competent children may have developed the authoritative style because of the children's  
behavior, rather than vice versa.  
2.Parent and child expectations. Cultural research suggests that a parent's expectations of a child's temperament and a child's  
expectations of how parents should behave also play important roles in parenting (Laungani, 2007; Manczak et al., [9.10]; Zhang  
et al., 2011). As you read earlier in this chapter, adolescents in Korea expect strong parental control and interpret it as a sign of  
love and deep concern. Adolescents in North America, however, might interpret the same behavior as a sign of parental hostility  
and rejection.  
3.Limited attention to father's role in parenting. Until recently , the father's role in discipline and child care was largely ignored by  
most developmental researchers. But fathers in Western countries have begun to take a more active role in child-rearing, and there  
has been a corresponding increase in research. From these studies, we now know that children do best with authoritative dads,  
who are absorbed with, excited about, and responsive to their children. Children also do best when parents share the same,  
consistent parenting style. However, mothers and fathers often differ in their approaches, and research shows that such differences  
may increase marital conflict and child behavior problems (Tavassolie et al., [9.156]).  
Retrieval Practice 9.4 Social-Emotional Development  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking  
in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
According to Harlow's research with cloth and wire surrogate mother monkeys, ________is one of the most important variable in  
attachment.  
a. contact comfort  
b. “comfort food”  
c. neonatal breast feeding  
d. age group peer contact (“free play” periods)  
2\.   
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Which of the following terms are correctly matched?  
a. Lorenz, ageism  
b. Piaget, permissive parenting  
c. Harlow , contact comfort  
d. Baumrind, accommodation  
3\.   
Ainsworth's research suggests that a(n) ________infant is more likely to become very upset when mother leaves the room and to  
show mixed emotions when she returns.  
a. securely attached  
b. anxious/avoidant  
c. anxious/ambivalent  
d. demanding  
4\.   
Using Hazan and Shaver's research on adult attachment styles, identify the following adults with their probable type of infant  
attachment:  
________Mary is nervous around attractive partners and complains that lovers often want her to be more intimate than she finds  
comfortable.  
________Bob complains that lovers are often reluctant to get as close as he would like.  
________Rashelle finds it relatively easy to get close to others and seldom worries about being abandoned.  
5\.   
Briefly explain Baumrind's four parenting styles.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you learned about Baumrind's parenting styles. Using operant conditioning (Chapter 6, Learning), explain how a  
permissive parent and an authoritative parent might respond differently to a child's misbehavior . Use the terms positive punishment,  
negative punishment, positive reinforcement,and/or negative reinforcement,as applicable, in your response.


	10. Chapter 10

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10.1 Moral Development  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key concepts and theories of how morality develops and changes across our life span.  
•Describethe research and central characteristics of Kohlberg's theory of moral development.  
•Reviewthe three major criticisms of Kohlberg's theory .  
Morality is the basis of things and truth is the substance of all morality.  
—Mahatma Gandhi (Leader Of Indian Independence, Philosopher)  
In Chapter 9, we noted that newborns cry when they hear another baby cry . But did you know that by age two, most children  
use words like goodor badto evaluate actions that are aggressive or that might endanger their own or another's welfare? Or  
that juvenile chimpanzees will soothe a frightened or injured peer, and adult social birds and mammals show reciprocity and  
helping behaviors within their groups (Freidin et al., [10.54]; Goodall, [10.70]; Smith & W arneken, [10.158])? How can we  
explain such early emergence and cross-species evidence of morality—the ability to take the perspective of, or empathize  
with, others and to distinguish between right and wrong?  
From a biological perspective, some researchers suggest that morality may be prewired and evolutionarily based (Decety &  
Y oder, [10.39]; Keltner et al., [10.90]; W orkman & Reader, [10.180]). Behaviors like infants' empathic crying and animals'  
helping behaviors promote the survival of the species. Therefore, evolution may have provided us with a biological basis for  
moral acts. But biology is only one part of the biopsychosocial model. In this section, we will focus our attention on the  
psychological and social factors that explain how moral thoughts, feelings, and actions change over the life span.  
Kohlberg's Research  
Consider the following situation.  
In Eur ope, a cancer-ridden woman was near death, but an expensive drug existed that might save her . The woman's husband,  
Heinz, begged the druggist to sell the drug at a lower price, or to let him pay later , but the druggist r efused. Heinz became  
desperate and broke into the druggist's store and stole it(Kohlber g, [10.95], pp. 18–19).  
W as Heinz right to steal the drug? What do you consider moral behavior? Is morality “in the eye of the beholder,” or are  
there universal truths and principles? Whatever your answer, your ability to think, reason, and respond to Heinz's dilemma  
demonstrates another type of development that is very important to psychology—moral development.  
One of the most influential researchers in moral development was Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987). He presented what he  
called “moral stories” like the Heinz dilemma to people of all ages, not to see whether they judged Heinz right or wrong but  
to examine the reasons they gave for their decisions. On the basis of his findings, Kohlberg ([10.95], [10.97]) developed a  
model of moral development with three broad levels, each composed of two distinct stages (Step-by-Step Diagram10.1).  
Individuals at various levels may or may not support Heinz's stealing of the drug, but their reasoning changes from level to  
level.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 10.1 Kohlberg's Three Levels of Moral Development  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on  
quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Preconventional morality The first level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, in which morality is based on  
rewards, punishment, and exchange of favors.  
Conventional morality The second level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, in which moral judgments are based  
on compliance with the rules and values of society .  
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Postconventional morality The highest level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, in which individuals develop  
personal standards for right and wrong, and define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all  
situations and societies.  
Sources:Based on Kohlberg, L.“Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive Developmental Approach to Socialization,” in D. A.  
Goslin, The handbook of socialization theory and research. Chicago: Rand McNally , 1969, p. 376(T able 6.2).  
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Preconventional moralityis self-centered and based on rewards, punishments, and exchange of favors. In contrast,  
conventional moralityis based on compliance with the rules and values of society . Finally , at the highest level—  
postconventional morality—individuals develop personal standards for right and wrong. They define morality in terms of  
abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies.  
Assessing Kohlberg's Theory  
When morality comes up against profit, it is seldom that profit loses.  
—Shirley Chisholm (Politician, Author , Educator)  
Kohlberg's ideas have led to considerable research on how we think about moral issues. One area of research concerns the  
relationship of moral reasoning to moral behavior . That is, are people who achieve higher stages on Kohlberg's scale really  
more moral than others? Or do they just “talk a good game”?  
Some researchers have shown that people's sense of moral identity, meaning their use of moral principles to define  
themselves, is often a good predictor of their behavior in real-world situations (Johnston et al., [10.86]). Others have found  
that situational factors are better predictors of moral behavior (Antonaccio et al., [10.5]; Bandura, [10.8], [10.9]). For  
example, employees are more likely to voluntarily participate in environmentally “green” behaviors at work if their  
supervisors model such behaviors themselves (Kim et al., [10.93]). And both men and women will tell more sexual lies  
during casual relationships than during close relationships (Williams, [10.179]).  
Other areas of research into Kohlberg's theory involve possible gender bias and the influence of cultural differences. See the  
following Gender and Cultural Diversity for more about this research.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Effects on Moral Development  
Are there gender differences in moral development? In Kohlberg's studies, women tended to be classified at a lower level of  
moral reasoning than men. As noted in Figure10.1, researcher Carol Gilligan suggested that this was true because  
Kohlberg's theory emphasizes values more often held by men, such as rationality and independence, while deemphasizing  
common female values, such as concern for others and belonging (Gilligan, [10.63], [10.64], [10.65]). Gilligan later  
expanded on this “care versus justice” difference between women and men by saying that these two positions are not  
mutually exclusive (Gilligan, [10.66]). And most follow-up studies in this area have not found consistent support for gender  
differences in moral reasoning (Giammarco, [10.61]; Gibbs, [10.62]; Mercadillo et al., [10.123]).  
Figure 10.1 Gilligan versus  
KohlbergAccording to Carol Gilligan,  
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women score “lower” on Lawrence  
Kohlberg's stages of moral  
development because they are  
socialized to assume more  
responsibility for the care of others.  
What do you think?  
Interestingly , a study of over 6,000 participants (Friesdorf et al., [10.56]) did clarify that women are more likely than men to  
have a stronger emotional aversion to causing harm to others, but they are no less rational. In line with other studies, women  
were found to be more empathic, but contrary to stereotypes, being more emotional or empathic does not mean being less  
rational.  
A focus on emotion is also central to recent research on the importance of moral intuition, or “gut instincts” in moral  
judgments. One of the leaders in the field, Johnathan Haidt ([10.78], [10.79]), developed the social intuitionist model(SIM),  
which suggests that we typically make quick, automatic, emotion-laden moral judgments—rather than employing logical,  
deliberative reasoning. What do you think? What might be the advantages of the SIM as a scientific model, or of the practice  
of making quick emotional judgments rather than using reasoning?  
Does culture also affect moral development? Several cross-cultural studies do support Kohlberg's model, whereas other  
studies find significant differences (Csordas, [10.37]; Endicott & Endicott, [10.44]; Rest et al., [10.143]). For instance, crosscultural comparisons of responses to Heinz's moral dilemma show that Europeans and Americans tend to consider whether  
they like or identify with the victim in questions of morality . In contrast, Hindu Indians consider social responsibility and  
personal concerns two separate issues (Miller & Bersoff, [10.126]). Researchers suggest that the difference reflects the  
Indians' broader sense of social responsibility . Furthermore, in India, Papua New Guinea, and China, as well as in Israeli  
kibbutzim, people don't choose between the rights of the individual and the rights of society (as the top levels of Kohlberg's  
model require). Instead, most people seek a compromise solution that accommodates both interests (Killen & Hart, [10.92];  
Miller & Bersoff, [10.126]). Thus, Kohlberg's standard for judging the highest level of morality (the postconventional level)  
may be more applicable to cultures that value individualism over community and interpersonal relationships.  
Looking beyond cultural differences in Kohlberg's specific stages of moral development, modern researchers (e.g., Graham  
et al., [10.75]) emphasize the need to examine a broader range of factors withina given culture, such as religion, social  
ecology (weather, crop conditions, residential mobility), and social institutions (kinship structures and economic markets),  
rather than the differences betweencultures mentioned above.  
Before going on, we'd like to share a particularly intriguing study related to cultural differences and morality . Given the  
common belief that foreign travel experiences enhance one's education and reduce intergroup bias, many will be disturbed by  
a recent study that reveals a darker side to travel (Lu et al., [10.117]). These researchers found that experiences abroad  
encouraged not only cognitive flexibility but also a type of moral flexibility or relativism that may lead to immoral  
behaviors! However, this effect seemed to apply only to broad, brief travel to many countries, which exposes the traveler to a  
wide variety of differing moral codes over a short time.  
Recognizing that travel time is limited for most people and that tourists often want to visit several countries in one trip, the  
authors of this study suggest that travelers review their own moral values and standards before leaving home. Can you see  
how the popular “Study Abroad” programs offered at many universities and colleges, in which students typically spend  
several weeks or a semester in one country , might be ideal? They provide more time and experiences that should lead to a  
deeper understanding of the differing moral codes and values of the host country (see the photo).  
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Retrieval Practice 10.1 Moral Development  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by  
looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly define morality .  
2\.   
According to Kohlberg, at what level of moral development is moral judgment self-centered and based on obtaining rewards  
and avoiding punishment?  
3\.   
Calvin would like to wear baggy , torn jeans and a nose ring, but he is concerned that others will disapprove. Calvin is at  
Kohlberg's ________level of morality .  
a. conformity  
b. approval seeking  
c. conventional  
d. preconventional  
4\.   
Five-year-old T yler believes “bad things are what you get punished for.” T yler is at Kohlberg's ________stage of morality .  
a. law-and-order orientation  
b. punishment-obedience orientation  
c. good-child orientation  
d. social-contract orientation  
5\.   
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Which of the following is NOT one of the major areas of research into Kohlberg's theory?  
a. possible gender bias  
b. cultural differences  
c. experimenter bias  
d. moral reasoning versus moral behavior  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), you will discover three factors that contribute to conformity—normative social influence,  
informational social influence, and reference groups. How might each of these factors apply to Kohlberg's various stages  
and/or levels of moral development?  
.  
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10.2 Personality Development  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the key concepts and theories of how personality develops and changes across our life span.  
•DescribeThomas and Chess's temperament theory .  
•SummarizeErikson's eight psychosocial stages of development.  
•Reviewthe major criticisms of Erikson's theory .  
Thomas and Chess's T emperament Theory  
As an infant, did you lie quietly and seem oblivious to loud noises? Or did you tend to kick and scream and respond immediately to every  
sound? Did you respond warmly to people, or did you fuss, fret, and withdraw? Y our answers to these questions help determine what  
developmental psychologists call your temperament, an individual's disposition or innate, biological behavioral style and characteristic  
emotional response.  
One of the earliest and most influential theories regarding temperament came from the work of psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and Stella  
Chess (Thomas & Chess, [10.165], [10.166], [10.167]). Thomas and Chess found that approximately 65 percent of the babies they observed  
could be reliably separated into three categories:  
1.Easy children These infants were happy most of the time, relaxed and agreeable, and adjusted easily to new situations (approximately  
40 percent).  
2.Difficult children Infants in this group were moody , easily frustrated, tense, and overreactive to most situations (approximately 10  
percent).  
3.Slow-to-warm-up children These infants showed mild responses, were somewhat shy and withdrawn, and needed time to adjust to new  
experiences or people (approximately 15 percent).  
Follow-up studies have found that certain aspects of these temperament styles tend to be consistent and enduring throughout childhood and  
even adulthood (Bates et al., [10.11]; Coplan & Bullock, [10.34]; Sayal et al., [10.150]). That is not to say every shy , cautious infant ends up  
a shy adult. Many events take place between infancy and adulthood that shape an individual's development.  
One of the most influential factors in early personality development is goodness of fitbetween a child's nature, parental behaviors, and the  
social and environmental setting (Granader et al., [10.76]; Seifer et al., [10.154]; Smiley et al., [10.157]). A slow-to-warm-up child does best  
if allowed time to adjust to new situations. Similarly , a difficult child thrives in a structured, understanding environment but not in an  
inconsistent, intolerant home. Alexander Thomas, the pioneer of temperament research, thinks parents should work with their child's  
temperament rather than trying to change it. Can you see how this idea of goodness of fit is yet another example of how nature and nurture  
interact?  
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory  
Like Piaget and Kohlberg, Erik Erikson proposed a stage theory of development. He identified eight psychosocial stagesof development  
from infancy to old age. Each stage is marked by a “psychosocial” task that a person must successfully resolve in order to develop healthy  
interpersonal relationships and emotional well-being (Step-by-Step Diagram10.2).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 10.2 Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams.  
Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
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The name for each psychosocial stage reflects the specific crisis encountered at that stage and identifies two possible outcomes. For example,  
the crisis or task of most young adults is intimacy versus isolation. This age group's developmental task is establishing deep, meaningful  
relations with others. Those who don't meet this developmental challenge risk social isolation. Erikson believed that the more successfully  
we overcome each psychosocial crisis, the better chance we have to develop in a healthy manner (Erikson, [10.46]).  
Evaluating Erikson's Theory  
Many psychologists agree with Erikson's general idea that psychosocial crises, which are based on interpersonal and environmental  
interactions, do contribute to social development (Gonzales-Backen et al., [10.69]; Kuiper et al., [10.103]; Major et al., [10.119]). As an  
example, researchers have found that adolescence is a critical time for consolidating one's identity and developing sexual and nonsexual  
intimacy—thus supporting Erikson's Stage 6 (Brandell and Brown, [10.20]). These researchers also found that successful resolution of this  
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stage may be harder in modern times due to adolescents' increased exposure to social media websites, Internet pornography, casual “hookups,” and recreational drugs and alcohol.  
Erikson's conclusions have been criticized in three major areas (Kroger, [10.98]; Robinson, [10.146]; Schwartz et al., [10.152]). First, his  
narrow focus on only one challenge for each developmental stage ignores other critical tasks in the same period. Second, Erikson's  
psychosocial stages are difficult to test scientifically . Third, the labels Erikson used to describe the eight stages may not be entirely  
appropriate cross-culturally . In individualistic cultures, autonomyis highly preferable to shame and doubt. But in collectivist cultures, the  
preferred resolution might be dependenceor merging relations(Berry et al., [10.13]).  
Despite their limits, Erikson's stages have greatly contributed to the study of North American and European psychosocial development. By  
suggesting that development continues past adolescence, Erikson's theory has encouraged ongoing research and theory development.  
Retrieval Practice 10.2 Personality Development  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly define temperament.  
2\.   
According to Thomas and Chess's temperament theory, ________children are somewhat shy and withdrawn and need time to adjust to new  
experiences or people.  
a. difficult  
b. emotionally delayed  
c. slow-to-warm-up  
d. none of these  
3\.   
According to Erikson, the key crisis or task of most young adults is ________.  
a. identity versus role confusion  
b. trust versus mistrust  
c. intimacy versus isolation  
d. industry versus inferiority  
4\.   
Erikson suggested that problems in adulthood are sometimes related to unsuccessful resolution of one of his eight stages. For each of the  
following individuals, identify the most likely “problem” stage:  
a.________Marcos has trouble keeping friends and jobs because he feels unsafe, and he continually asks for guarantees and reassurance  
of his worth.  
b.________Ann has attended several colleges without picking a major, has taken several vocational training programs, and has had  
numerous jobs over the last 10 years.  
c.________T eresa is reluctant to apply for a promotion even though her coworkers have encouraged her to do so. She lacks selfconfidence and feels guilty that she will be taking a job from someone else.  
d.________George continually obsesses over the value of his life. He regrets that he left his wife and children for a job in another  
country and failed to maintain contact.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
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Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
1\.   
In Chapter 9 (Life Span Development I), you discovered some of the ongoing theoretical debates in developmental psychology: nature or  
nurture, stages or continuity , and stability or change. Apply each of these issues to the development of personality across childhood into  
adulthood.  
2\.   
In what ways are attachment theory (Chapter 9) and Erikson's psychosocial theory similar?  
.  
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10.3 Neurodevelopmental Disorders  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major concepts and theories that help explain neurodevelopmental disorders.  
•Discussattention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), including its symptoms, causal factors, and  
treatment options.  
•Describeautism spectrum disorder (ASD), including its symptoms, causal factors, and treatment options.  
Our study of life span development so far has focused on normal or typical development. But as we all know,  
everything doesn't always happen according to the book (even a textbook). Some children and their families are  
challenged by physical, cognitive, or socioemotional symptoms that may make learning or social relationships  
more difficult. These neurodevelopmental disordersusually begin during childhood and arise from abnormal brain  
development. They can result in a wide range of disorders, including intellectual disability (discussed in Chapter  
8), as well as difficulties in communication and learning. W e will focus on two of the more common  
neurodevelopmental disorders: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorderand autism spectrum disorder.  
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD )  
Do you find it difficult to sit through a typical college class lecture or to focus on studying? Do you often fail to  
meet deadlines or forget to pay your bills? Although most of us find these tasks challenging at times, we can  
generally force ourselves to power through and do what needs to be done. Someone with ADHD, though, often  
finds such tasks nearly impossible.  
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)is a developmental disorder characterized by a pattern of  
inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is present in multiple settings and interferes with social,  
educational, or work functioning (American Psychiatric Association, [10.4]). According to the American  
Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), about 5% of children  
have ADHD, with about twice as many boys as girls meeting the official diagnostic criteria. Symptoms typically  
begin prior to the age of 12 and, in many cases, last into adulthood.  
What causes ADHD? Like most psychological processes, it's likely to result from an interaction of both biological  
and psychosocial causes, but the greatest contributors appear to be neurological and genetic factors (Barkley,  
[10.10]; Kim et al., [10.94]; Thapar & Cooper, [10.164]). Interestingly , research finds that children with ADHD fail  
to get enough high-quality sleep, but it's unclear whether this is a possible cause or just a side effect and symptom  
of the disorder (V irring et al., [10.173]).  
The symptoms of ADHD cause various problems. For example, a child with hyperactivityand impulsivitymay  
have significant difficulty in school due to his inability to remain seated during class or to carefully read through  
instructions or test questions. He may run into difficulty with peers when he doesn't follow the rules or wait  
patiently for his turn at games. An inattentivechild may not call as much attention to herself as a hyperactive child,  
but she will often forget to turn in assignments, daydream in class instead of listening to the teacher, and lose track  
of her books, pencils, and other items.  
Experts once believed most children would “grow out” of ADHD. T oday , evidence suggests that some aspects of  
the disorder tend to persist into adolescence and adulthood (Guelzow et al., [10.77]). Specifically , symptoms of  
hyperactivity generally decline with age, whereas inattention and impulsivity persist. W omen with ADHD are more  
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likely than men to experience the inattentivesymptoms of ADHD, such as being easily sidetracked at work,  
missing appointments or important details in a meeting, and misplacing significant items like car keys or a wallet.  
Men with ADHD more often exhibit impulsivitysymptoms, such as having difficulty waiting their turn while  
standing in line, butting into others' conversations, or blurting out the answer to a question before it has been  
completed.  
Do you see how these symptoms of ADHD would naturally impede success at school or work (Weyandt et al.,  
[10.175])? They also can have a deep impact on self-esteem and interpersonal relationships. In addition, people  
with ADHD are more likely to suffer from serious anxiety , depression, and substance abuse disorders and to selfinjure or even commit suicide (Barkley , [10.10]; Chen et al., [10.29]; Rucklidge et al., [10.148]).  
These findings have prompted researchers and clinicians to closely examine and evaluate the various causes and  
treatments of ADHD. One of the most puzzling and controversial aspects of this disorder is determining how many  
children actually have ADHD. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) reports that that the percentage of children  
who have received a diagnosis of ADHD by a health care provider varies by state, from a low of 5.6% in Nevada  
to a high of 18.7% in Kentucky (V isser et al., [10.174]). Moreover , it seems that the number of children being  
diagnosed with ADHD is increasing.  
So what's going on? It's certainly possible that ADHD is being overdiagnosed. Children today are more likely to be  
in institutional settings, such as day care and preschool, at very young ages. These environments may require more  
attention and behavioral control than some children can handle, prompting caregivers or parents to seek a medical  
solution. Y et another contributing factor could be that almost all children today spend more time indoors with less  
opportunity for exercise than in the past, which tends to exacerbate the symptoms of ADHD. For older kids, teens,  
and young adults, the increased pressure for high standardized test scores and academic or career success becomes  
particularly troublesome for those suffering from ADHD. Others suggest that the rise in ADHD is due to  
misdiagnosis and confusion with other disorders. The increase has also been attributed to parents, teachers, and  
medical practitioners who label normal behavior as pathological, as well as aggressive campaigning by  
pharmaceutical companies (Molina & Pelham, [10.130]; Monastra, [10.131]).  
The most common treatment for ADHD is stimulant medication (such as Ritalin or Adderall). And the use of  
ADHD medication has markedly increased in the last 20 years (Bachmann et al., [10.6]). Contrary to what you  
might expect, the areas of the brain that help us to focus, pay attention, and control behavior are actually  
underaroused in someone with ADHD. For many people with ADHD, stimulant medications help to reduce  
hyperactivity and improve their ability to pay attention. For others, though, the medication's side effects may be  
unacceptable, and finding the correct medication and dosage can be challenging.  
An additional concern is the increased recreational use of ADHD drugs. They're also being abused to increase  
academic and job performance and as weight-loss aids (Bagot & Kaminer, [10.7]; Schwarz, [10.153].) One largescale survey of 8th, 9th, and 11th graders found that Ritalin and other ADHD medications were the prescription  
drugs most frequently used for nonmedical purposes—even outranking opiate-based painkillers (Forster et al.,  
[10.51]). Although the effectiveness of ADHD medications is well-documented, there is little information  
regarding how it affects non-ADHD users. And one worrisome study noted changes in the brain chemistry  
resulting in increased risk-taking behaviors and disruptions in the sleep-wake cycle (Robison et al., [10.147]).  
Fortunately , many who suffer from ADHD may benefit from behavioral interventions at home and at school. These  
behavioral strategies include giving clear, step-by-step instructions, immediate feedback on tasks, and ample  
warning before transitioning between activities (e.g., Monastra, [10.131]). An example of behavioral interventions  
comes from renowned Olympic athlete Michael Phelps, who was diagnosed with ADHD in childhood (Figure  
10.2). At 10 years of age, Michael became so upset at coming in second at a swim meet that he angrily threw his  
goggles onto the pool deck. His mother quickly reminded him that sportsmanship counted as much as winning, and  
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together they designed a C-shaped hand signal that she could give him from the stands that stood for “compose  
yourself” (Dutton, [10.40]). Like many others with ADHD, Michael found that competitive sports helped him  
focus and successfully deal with his disorder .  
Figure 10.2 Attention-deficit  
hyperactivity disorder  
(ADHD)Olympic swimming  
legend Michael Phelps was  
diagnosed with ADHD when he  
was in 6th grade.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
Given the core symptoms of ADHD—inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity—how could Michael Phelps  
endure the long and grueling years of practice and training required to become a star Olympic athlete?  
2\.   
If you or a loved one has been diagnosed with ADHD, how has it affected your college and personal life?  
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD )  
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)is a developmental disorder that begins in early childhood and involves problems  
with social communication and social interaction, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or  
activities.  
Interestingly , autism may be one of the most familiar yet least understood of the developmental disorders. As with  
ADHD, the reported cases of ASD have risen sharply in recent years and experts disagree about the explanations  
for this increase (e.g., Graf et al., [10.74]). Sadly , film and television portrayals of the disorder far too often create a  
distorted view of a person with extraordinary talents (such as a mathematical or musical prodigy) and a complete  
lack of emotional or social skills. Actually , the truth is somewhere in between (see Figure10.3).  
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Figure 10.3 Susan Boyle and  
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)The  
world was shocked when Susan  
Boyle first appeared on the Britain's  
Got T alentshow in 2009, but she  
quickly impressed the judges and  
later rose to great fame and fortune.  
Her iconic version of the song “I  
Dreamed a Dream,” along with her  
trouble-filled life story , due in large  
part to her ASD, are great examples  
of the power of a growth mindset  
and grit.  
The most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM-5) made a significant change in the  
way autism-related disorders are categorized. The previously separate diagnoses (autistic, Asperger's, childhood  
disintegrative, and pervasive developmental disorders) are now combined into a single category, autism spectrum  
disorder (ASD). The use of the term “spectrum” refers to a rangeof symptoms and disabilities, with no single  
identified cause. In order to be diagnosed, a child must show symptoms from an early age. However, those  
symptoms may not be problematic until the child is in an environment (such as school) that would highlight the  
deficits.  
ASD symptoms fall into two main types: social/communicative and behavioral. People with ASD have difficulty  
with both verbal and nonverbal communication. They may respond inappropriately in conversations, misinterpret  
abstract or emotional content, or fail to interpret nonverbal cues (such as looking pointedly at one's watch or rolling  
one's eyes). In conversations, people with ASD may seem to be talking atrather than withyou, because they focus  
entirely on their own interests and ideas. Some individuals with ASD may lack the ability to speak at all or may  
have cognitive impairments (such as low IQ). In such cases, communication may be made easier through the use of  
handheld, touchscreen technologies that allow for messaging or e-mailing. Those who are nonverbal and cannot  
read or write may be able to communicate by choosing pictures on a touchscreen—a picture of a food item they  
might want to eat, or a picture that indicates they need to use the bathroom.  
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The behavioral symptoms vary quite a bit, but most people with ASD show a strong preference for routine and are  
upset by and resistant to any efforts to change things. People with ASD also tend to have intense, restricted  
interests, often focused on inappropriate objects (such as train schedules or light switches). In more severe cases,  
the behavioral symptoms may take the form of self-injury , such as head-banging or self-biting.  
ASD is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that is associated with many different causes. However , most  
research suggests that biological factors are the greatest contributors (Butler, [10.21]; Geschwind & State, [10.60];  
Kim et al., [10.94]). For instance, the heritability of ASD is high, and brain development in infants with autism is  
abnormal. Researchers have found that infants later diagnosed with autism had smaller-than-average head size at  
birth but had heads and brains much larger than normal by 6 to 14 months (Libero et al., [10.111]; Martinez-Murcia  
et al., [10.121]; Sacco et al., [10.149]). Brain imaging studies suggest that the areas of the cortex most affected by  
these abnormal growth patterns, the frontal lobes, are those areas essential to complex functions such as attention,  
social behavior , and language.  
Interestingly , research suggests that ASD's established link with a lack of theory of mind (T oM) is also probably  
biologically based (e.g., Cheng et al., [10.30]; Frith, [10.58]; Hutchins & Prelock, [10.84]). As discussed in  
Chapter 9, T oM is the ability to understand that others don't share the same thoughts and feelings that we do. And  
experts believe that this impediment helps explain the communication and social interaction problems typical of  
people with ASD, as well as those with ADHD.  
ASD is especially disruptive to development because of its very early onset. Although symptoms and severity may  
vary widely , ASD treatment should begin as early as possible. Treatment options usually focus on increasing  
effective communication, learning social skills, and decreasing problematic behaviors. Many treatment programs  
use operant conditioning, a form of therapy that you learned about in Chapter 6. This approach attempts to shape  
and reward desired behaviors (such as making eye contact) through the use of reinforcement. Children with ASD  
may also need speech and/or occupational therapy to directly address language or motor difficulties. Although  
there is no medication that specifically targets autism, children who also have other symptoms, such as  
hyperactivity or anxiety , may benefit from medication.  
Before going on, it's important to dispel the persistent myth that ASD is caused by vaccines or by the preservatives  
used in vaccines. Numerous studies have failed to find a causal link between vaccinations and autism, and it  
appears that one well-known study reporting such a link was fraudulent (Jain et al., [10.85]; Lilienfeld et al.,  
[10.1 12]; McGuinness, [10.122]). There is a similar lack of strong evidence for other dietary or environmental  
factors. It is easy to understand, though, how well-meaning parents would grasp at any potential solution to prevent  
or treat this devastating disorder . Unfortunately , experts strongly believe that parents who refuse to vaccinate their  
children risk even more dangerous consequences.  
Retrieval Practice 10.3 Neurodevelopmental Disorders  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Which of the following is TRUE of ADHD?  
a. More girls than boys are diagnosed with this disorder.  
b. Symptoms typically begin after the age of 12.  
c. Symptoms often last into adulthood.  
d. All of these are true.  
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2\.   
Describe the major symptoms of ADHD.  
3\.   
W omen with ADHD are more likely than men to experience the ________symptoms of ADHD, whereas men  
more often exhibit ________symptoms.  
a. inattentive; impulsivity  
b. behavioral; cognitive  
c. depressive; anxiety  
d. hyperactivity; inattentive  
4\.   
ASD symptoms fall into two main types: ________and ________.  
a. verbal communication; nonverbal  
b. social/communicative; behavioral  
c. cognitive impairments; behavioral difficulties  
d. genetic; environmental  
5\.   
Which of the following is FALSE about ASD?  
a. Treatment should begin as early as possible.  
b. In ASD, the term “spectrum” refers to a rangeof symptoms and disabilities, with no single identified cause.  
c. Most experts believe it is caused by preservatives in vaccines.  
d. There is no medication that specifically targets autism.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 14 (Psychological Disorders), we discuss the four major criteria for identifying abnormal behavior—  
deviance, dysfunction, distress, and danger . How do these four criteria apply to ADHD?  
.  
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10.4 Challenges of Adulthood  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the key challenges of adulthood and how we can best cope with them.  
•Discussthe key factors in relationships.  
•Reviewthe personal challenges of aging.  
•Discussthe major issues surrounding grief, death, and dying.  
Now that we've completed our whirlwind trip through the major theories and concepts explaining morality,  
personality development, and neurodevelopmental disorders, you may be wondering how this applies to your  
current adult life. In this section, we will explore several critical developmental tasks we all face as adults:  
developing a long-term, committed relationship with another person, coping with the challenges of family life,  
finding rewarding work and retirement, and the major issues of grief, death, and dying.  
Relationships  
One of the most essential tasks faced during adulthood is that of establishing some form of continuing, loving,  
sexual relationship with another person. Research shows that marriage is associated with improved overall health  
outcomes, greater life satisfaction, lower stress, less depression, and lower waking blood pressure (e.g.,  
Blekesaune, [10.17]; Effects of Marriage, 2016; Lim & Raymo, [10.114]). As expected, same-sex partnerships and  
opposite-sex unions offer similar health benefits (Frech et al., [10.53]).  
Divorce  
Despite the obvious advantages to committed relationships, they also pose significant challenges. For example,  
many marriages end in divorce, which has serious implications for both adults and children (Braithwaite et al.,  
[10.19]; Chun et al., [10.31]; Shafer et al., [10.155]). For the adults, both spouses generally experience emotional  
as well as practical difficulties and are at high risk for depression and physical health problems. However, many  
problems assumed to be due to divorce are actually present before marital disruption, and, for some, divorce can be  
life enhancing. In a “healthy” divorce, ex-spouses must accomplish three tasks: let go, develop new social ties, and,  
when children are involved, r edefine parental roles(Everett & Everett, [10.47]).  
In addition to stresses on the divorcing couple, some research shows that children also suffer both short-term and  
long-lasting effects. Compared with children in continuously intact two-parent families, children of divorce exhibit  
more behavioral problems, poorer self-concepts, more psychological problems, lower academic achievement, and  
more substance abuse and social difficulties, according to some researchers (Friesen et al., [10.57]; Hosokawa &  
Katsura, [10.83]; Shafer et al., [10.155]). Other researchers, however, find little or no effect on children's social and  
behavioral problems. Still other researchers have suggested that both parents and children may do better without  
the constant tension and fighting of an intact, but unhappy , home (Bernet & Ash, [10.12]; Hakvoort et al., [10.80]).  
Whether children become “winners” or “losers” in a divorce depends on the (1) individual attributes of the child,  
(2) qualities of the custodial family , (3) continued involvement with noncustodial parents, and (4) resources and  
support systems available to the child and parents (Ferraro et al., [10.48]; Modecki et al., [10.129]; Vélez et al.,  
[10.172]). If you or your parents are currently considering or going through a divorce, you may want to keep these  
four factors in mind when making legal and other decisions about children. Before going on, it's important to dispel  
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the popular myth that over half of all marriages in the United States end in divorce. In actuality , the rate of divorce  
has been declining since the 1970s. T oday , only about a third of marriages end in divorce (Swanson, [10.163]).  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success:What Ar e the Secr ets to Enduring  
Love?  
By Thomas Frangicetto, Northampton Community College, Bethlehem, P A  
Have you ever wished you knew the secrets of happy marriages and committed romantic relationships—as shown  
in the photo? Renowned psychologist and marriage researcher John Gottman believes he knows, and there's  
nothing secret about them (see photo). Based on over four decades of rigorous scientific observation, Gottman and  
his colleagues have identified seven basic principles they believe explain why some relationships grow and  
flourish, whereas others deteriorate and die (Gottman, [10.71]; Gottman & Gottman, [10.72]; Navarra et al.,  
[10.134]).  
T o evaluate your own relationship, take the following quiz based on these same seven principles. (Note: Although  
written primarily for marital spouses, the principles apply to all long-term relationships—friends, lovers, and even  
parents and children.)  
Principle 1: Enhance your “love maps.”  
Does your partner know about the major events in your life and your goals, worries, and dreams for the future? Do  
you know the same about him or her? Y es _____ No _____  
Emotionally intelligent couples are “intimately familiar” with each other's lives because both partners pay attention  
to one another and are willing to share their innermost thoughts and feelings. Gottman says this type of attention  
and sharing leads to the creation of richly detailed “love maps.” Our partner should be the one person in the world  
who knows us almost as well as we know ourselves—and vice versa.  
Principle 2: Nurture your fondness and admiration.  
Do you basically like and respect your partner? Y es _____ No _____  
Although happily married couples may, at times, feel annoyed by their partner's personality quirks, they still  
consider their spouse worthy of honor and respect. Nurturing fondness and expressing admiration are essential  
factors in a mutually rewarding and durable romance. How important is this principle? Gottman answers: “When  
this sense is completely missing from a marriage, the relationship cannot be revived.”  
Principle 3: Turn toward each other instead of away .  
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Do you and your partner believe it's okay to tune each other out when your conversations become boring or  
mundane? Y es _____ No _____  
Think again. According to Gottman: “When couples stay tuned to one another, even when their talking seems  
trivial, and when they engage in lots of chitchat, I can be pretty sure that they will stay happily married.” While  
these exchanges may seem inconsequential, they represent moments of bonding—the couple is turning towar d  
each other. Couples headed for divorce rarely have these small, but crucial, moments of connection. Turning  
toward one another is the basis of emotional connection, romance, passion, and a good sex life.  
Principle 4: Let your partner influence you.  
Do you believe that “welcoming divergent views” doesn't necessarily include your partner's views? Y es _____ No  
_____  
It may take two to “make or break a marriage,” but on this principle, women tend to have the positive edge.  
Gottman's research reveals that women more often “let their husbands influence their decision making by taking  
their opinions and feelings into account.” And men? “They often do not return the favor .” Gottman advises men to  
adopt the female approach because the most successful and stable marriages are those in which power and  
influence are shared.  
Principle 5: Solve your solvable problems.  
Do you believe that “love conquers all” or that good communication can solve all your problems? Y es _____ No  
_____  
Gottman suggests that what makes a good marriage is not communication, but how partners perceive one another  
and how they handle inevitable conflicts. He puts it simply: “When a husband and wife respect each other and are  
open to each other's point of view , they have a good basis for resolving any differences that arise.” In addition to  
focusing on our partner's positive traits and accepting that he or she has our best interests at heart, Gottman  
suggests five steps for successful problem solving: (1) Soften your startup. (It's not what you say as much as how  
you say it.) (2) Learn to make and receive “repair attempts.” (3) Soothe yourself and each other. (“T urn toward”  
one another with words or behaviors that help soften the conflict.) (4) Compromise. (5) Be tolerant of one another's  
faults.  
Unfortunately , when we're really angry with our partner and emotionally threatened, we may not be able to  
remember these five steps. W e become overwhelmed by “emotional flooding,” and our physiological “fight-flightfreeze” response kicks in—we want to attack, tune out (freeze), or run away! T o make matters worse, during this  
time of high arousal, our higher , logical cognitive processes are limited (Chapter 3). In this heightened state, we  
may fail to recognize and/or accept repair attempts, as well as the need to soothe ourselves and our partner. Can  
you see why this lethal combination so often leads to an inevitable increase in tension and anger? The good news is  
that you can successfully cope with experiences of “flooding” by saying things like, “Let's stop for now . I need to  
calm down.” Then agree when and where you'll resume your discussion.  
Principle 6: Overcome gridlock.  
Do you believe that major differences of opinion will destroy a marriage? Y es _____ No _____  
Gottman finds that about 70% of marital conflicts are unsolvable! Do you find this surprising? It actually should be  
reassuring. Knowing that we all have “irreconcilable differences” with those we love means that we don't need to  
assume that they will automatically lead to divorce or the loss of valuable relationships. Instead of wasting huge  
amounts of time and energy arguing our case in the hopes of changing our partner's opinions, we need to recognize  
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that serious and perpetual problems are generally about core values and personal views of the world—which  
seldom change! The goal in ending “gridlock”—those situations that seemingly won't yield to agreement—is notto  
solve the problem as much as it is to progress from gridlock to engage in dialogue. Gottman's unhappy couples are  
often stuck in “loss-loss loops,” whereas his successful couples learn to engage in dialogue and then “live with the  
problem.”  
Keep in mind that gridlock is often rooted in oppositional hopes or dreams. Gottman's happy couples recognize this  
and understand that helping each other realize their competing desires is one of the goals of marriage. They try to  
establish some level of “initial compromise,” and then continue working on bridging or ending the gridlock with  
mutual respect and compromise.  
Principle 7: Create shared meaning.  
Do you and your partner work to create an intentional, shared purpose for your relationship? Y es _____ No _____  
While similar to establishing “love maps,” this principle encourages partners to work at developing a deeper sense  
of shared meaning. Successful couples go out of their way to create traditions and rituals that help them stay  
connected. For example, they routinely schedule and honor holiday and birthday get-togethers, they have a  
designated date night or family home evening, or they always hug or kiss before bed or leaving one another in the  
morning. This results in the sort of shared history that becomes an almost “spiritual dimension that has to do with  
creating an inner life together—a culture rich with symbols and rituals.”  
Bottom line: If we want our love and relationships to not only last, but also flourish, we need to be willing to work  
at nurturing, repairing, and protecting them. For additional information on John Gottman's extensive research and  
available book titles, go to: www .gottman.com.  
Domestic V iolence  
Families can be warm and loving. They also can be cruel and abusive. Maltreatment and abuse are more widely  
recognized than in the past. However , it is difficult to measure domestic violence because it usually occurs in  
private and victims are reluctant to report it out of shame, feelings of powerlessness, or fear of reprisal.  
Nevertheless, every year millions of cases of domestic violence, child abuse, intimate partner violence (IPV), and  
elder abuse are known to occur, and many more are not reported to police or social service agencies (e.g., Edwards  
et al., [10.41]; Reuter et al., [10.144]; Stover & Lent, [10.161]).  
What causes domestic violence? Research shows that it occurs more often in families experiencing marital conflict,  
pregnancy , substance abuse, mental disorders, and economic stress (Labrum & Solomon, [10.104]; Low et al.,  
[10.1 16]; Miller-Graff & Cheng, [10.127]). Keep in mind that abuse and violence occur at all socioeconomic  
levels. However , abuse and violence do occur more frequently in families disrupted by unemployment or other  
financial distress.  
In addition, many abusive family members are socially isolated and lack good communication and parenting skills.  
Their anxiety and frustration may explode into spouse, child, or elder abuse. In fact, one of the clearest identifiers  
of abuse potential is impulsivity. People who abuse their children, their dating partners or spouses, or their elderly  
parents seem to lack impulse control, especially when stressed. They also respond to stress with more intense  
emotions and greater arousal (Chamorro et al., [10.28]; Finkenauer et al., [10.49]; Leone et al., [10.107]). This  
impulsivity is related not only to psychosocial factors like economic stress and social isolation (with no one to turn  
to for help or feedback) but also to possible biological influences.  
Biologically , three regions of the brain are closely related to the expression and control of aggression: the  
amygdala, the prefrontal cortex, and the hypothalamus (see Chapter 2 to review these regions). Interestingly, head  
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injuries, strokes, dementia, schizophrenia, alcoholism, abuse of stimulant drugs, and nonmedical use of  
prescription drugs have all been linked to these three areas and to aggressive outbursts (e.g., Low et al., [10.116];  
Parks et al., [10.140]; Smith et al., [10.159]).  
When people hear about domestic violence, they often wonder why the victim doesn't immediately report the abuse  
to authorities and/or simply leave. As with most social problems, the causes of domestic violence are complex, and  
the solutions are far from simple (Low et al., [10.116]; Murray et al., [10.133]; Pill et al., [10.141]):  
•First, abuse is almost never a single, isolated explosion. Instead, it generally involves numerous events that  
follow a cyclical and escalating pattern. In the beginning, perpetrators can be devoted and caring partners or  
parents, but when disagreements happen the abusers respond with increasing levels of intimidation, bullying,  
and violence, while the victims learn that the only way to calm the situation is to respond with increasing levels  
of compliance and subservience.  
•Second, abuse occurs in many forms (physical, verbal, and emotional), which makes it harder to identify and  
report. And domestic violence is much more difficult to report and prosecute than attacks by strangers. Child  
abuse may be dismissed as a parent's right to discipline, and spousal assault is often ignored or treated as  
insignificant.  
•Third, the victims' own mixed feelings may stop them from leaving. Given that abuse is about power and  
control, victims are typically afraid of what will happen if they leave. It's also difficult to admit that they've  
been abused, and some even believe that abuse is normal. Many also stay for cultural and religious reasons, and  
others because they still have feelings of love for the abuser and want to keep the relationship or family  
together .  
•Fourth, and possibly most importantly , many victims are financially or physically dependent on the abuser and  
simply see no alternative.  
Despite these obstacles, there is help if you or someone you know is involved in domestic violence. Y ou can reach  
trained counselors 24 hours a day anywhere in North America by calling 1-800-799-SAFE, and on the Internet at  
www .thehotline.org.  
If your friends and family ar e telling you to run, not walk away from a relationship, take their advice!  
—Anonymous  
Challenges of Aging  
Having discussed the difficulties of finding and keeping committed relationships, we now turn to other important  
challenges of adulthood.  
W ork and Retirement  
Throughout most of our adult lives, work defines us in fundamental ways. It affects our health, our friendships,  
where we live, and even our leisure activities. How can we find personally satisfying and long-lasting careers?  
Choosing an occupation is one of the most influential decisions in our lives, and the task is becoming ever more  
difficult and complex as career options rapidly change due to increasing specialization, job fluctuations, and the  
global economy . The Dictionary of Occupational Titles, a government publication, currently lists more than  
200,000 job categories. One way to learn more about these job categories and potential careers is to visit your  
college career center . These centers typically offer an abundance of resources, as well as interesting and helpful  
vocational interest tests.  
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W ork is a big part of adult life and self-identity . But the large majority of men and women in the United States  
choose to retire sometime in their sixties. Fortunately , the loss of self-esteem and depression that are commonly  
assumed to accompany retirement may be largely a myth. Life satisfaction after retirement appears to be most  
strongly related to good health, control over one's life, social support, adequate income, and participation in  
community services and social activities (e.g., Henning et al., [10.81]; Li & Loo, [10.113]; T ovel & Carmel,  
[10.168]).  
Theories of Aging  
Active involvement in community and social activities is the key ingredient to a fulfilling old age, according to the  
activity theory of aging. In contrast, disengagement theoryholds that successful aging is a natural and graceful  
withdrawal from life (Achenbaum & Bengtson, [10.1]; Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2014; Cummings & Henry,  
[10.38]) (Figure10.4). T oday , disengagement theory has been largely abandoned. Successful aging does not  
require withdrawal from society . W e mention this theory because of its historical relevance and also because of its  
connection to an influential modern perspective, socioemotional selectivity theory.  
Figure 10.4 Disengagement versus activityThe  
disengagement theory of aging suggests that older  
people naturally disengage and withdraw from life.  
However, judging by the apparently happy people in  
this photo, activity theory may be a better model to  
follow because it suggests that everyone should  
remain active and involved throughout the entire life  
span.  
This latest model helps explain the predictable decline in social contact that almost everyone experiences as they  
move into their older years (Carstensen et al., [10.26]; English & Carstensen, [10.45]; Williams et al., [10.178]).  
According to socioemotional selectivity theory, we don't naturally withdraw from society in our later years—we  
just become more selectivewith our time. W e deliberately choose to decrease our total number of social contacts in  
favor of familiar people who provide emotionally meaningful interactions (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Socioemotional selectivity  
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Note how our emotional needs appear to change over our life span (see photo). Can you explain why?  
Although older people do tend to reduce their number of social contacts, they're surprisingly happier! Contrary to  
stereotypes about “grumpy old people,” psychological research consistently finds an increase in happiness and  
well-being as we grow older (Kern et al., [10.91]; Riediger & Luong, [10.145]; Sutin et al., [10.162]). Why?  
Research finds that older people tend to have stronger relationships, to value their time more than money, and to  
become more selective with their time and friendships (offering further support for socioemotional selectivity  
theory) (Birditt & Newton, [10.15]; V aillant, [10.171]; Whillans et al., [10.176]).  
In addition, according to the age-related positivity effect, older adults generally prefer and pay more sustained  
attention to positive versus negative information and events (Carstensen, [10.23], [10.25]; Livingstone &  
Isaacowitz, [10.1 15]; Mikels & Shuster, [10.125]). Further research finds that this age-related positivity effect may  
even increase immune functioning and overall well-being after charitable giving (Bjälkebring et al., [10.16];  
Kalokerinos et al., [10.87]).  
Y ounger people, in contrast, tend to show an opposite approach—preferring and paying more attention to negative  
versus positive information and events. Do you see how this might help explain why the college years can feel so  
painful and troublesome in your 20s, while in later years they might be remembered as “the best years of your  
life”? It appears that older adults have developed greater emotional regulation, and that they deliberately focus  
their attention and memory in a positive direction. How can we use this information to improve our lives regardless  
of age? See the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Increasing Y our Positivity  
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At first glance, the answer to becoming more positive is “simple”—just focus on positive information and events.  
Obviously , this is harder than it appears. For more help, recall from Chapter 3 that this type of optimistic thinking  
is a personality trait that can be learned and developed. In addition, Chapter 15 offers tips for overcoming faulty  
thought processes.  
Interestingly , recent research shows that practicing gratitude exercisesmay be the fastest way to become a more  
optimistic and positive person while also enhancing well-being, happiness, life satisfaction, interpersonal  
relationships, and even physical health (Alkozei et al., [10.3]; Layous et al., [10.105]; Y oshimura & Berzins,  
[10.181]). T ry these simple exercises:  
1\.   
Create a daily gratitude list of the things that you're grateful for, and review the list each morning.  
2\.   
Put things in perspective. Gratitude isn't just for the good things in life. When things go wrong, ask yourself,  
“What's good about this?” and “What can I learn from this?”  
3\.   
Send thank you e-mails or letters to the special people who have had a favorable impact on your life. Even better—  
visit them in person.  
For more information on the age-related positivity effect, see the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Are Brain Differences Associated with Age-Related  
Happiness?  
T o test possible neural changes underlying the positive attention and memory bias exhibited by older people,  
researchers asked both younger adults (ages 19–31) and older adults (ages 61–80) to look at a series of  
photographs with positive and negative themes, such as a skier winning a race or a wounded soldier, and to  
remember as much as they could about the photographs (Addis et al., [10.2]). While participants viewed these  
images, researchers measured their brain activity through the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)  
scans (Chapter 2).  
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Surprisingly , they found no difference between brain activity in the encoding of information among younger and  
older adults as they looked at negative images. However, when viewing the positive images, areas of older adults'  
brains that process emotions (the amygdala and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex) directly affected the  
hippocampus. (As you recall, the hippocampus is responsible for encoding and storage of memories.) In contrast,  
in the younger adults' brains, the thalamus (a “simple” relay station) had a bigger influence on the hippocampus.  
This suggests that older adults may be better at sustaining attention on positive information and remembering more  
good times because brain regions that process positive emotions are instructing the hippocampus to “remember  
this.”  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did the researchers in this study (Addis et al., [10.2]) use descriptive,  
correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were  
not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is  
presented in most textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then  
comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of  
scientific research.  
Myth Busters Myths of Development  
A number of popular beliefs about age-related crises are not firmly supported by research. The popular idea of a  
midlife crisisbegan largely as a result of Gail Sheehy's national best-seller Passages([10.156]). Sheehy drew on  
the theories of Daniel Levinson ([10.108], [10.109], [10.1 10]) and psychiatrist Roger Gould ([10.73]), as well as  
her own interviews. She popularized the idea that almost everyone experiences a “predictable crisis” at about age  
35 for women and 40 for men. Middle age often is a time of reexamining one's values and lifetime goals. However,  
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Sheehy's book led many people to automatically expect a midlife crisis with drastic changes in personality and  
behavior . Research suggests that a severe reaction or crisis may be quite rare and unlike what most people  
experience during middle age (Freund & Ritter, [10.55]; Lilienfeld et al., [10.1 12]; Whitbourne & Mathews,  
[10.177]).  
Many people also believe that when the last child leaves home, most parents experience empty-nest syndrome—a  
painful separation and time of depression for the mother, the father , or both parents. Again, research suggests that  
the empty-nest syndrome may be an exaggeration of the pain experienced by a few individuals. Societal and  
cultural norms, as well as the quality of the family relationships, also play a role in empty-nest perceptions  
(Mitchell & W ister , [10.128]; Proulx & Helms, [10.142]). For example, one major benefit of the empty nest is a  
decrease in conflicts and an increase in marital satisfaction (Figure10.5). Moreover, parent–child relationships do  
continue once the child leaves home. As one mother said, “The empty nest is surrounded by telephone wires”  
(T roll et al., [10.169], p. 34). Fortunately , this is even more true today with cell phones, e-mail, and video chat  
services.  
Figure 10.5 Myth of the empty nest  
Grief, Death, and Dying  
One unavoidable part of life is its end. How can we understand and prepare ourselves for the loss of our own life  
and those of loved others? In this section, we look at the four stages of grief. W e then consider cultural and agerelated differences in attitudes toward death. W e conclude with death itself as a final developmental crisis.  
Quien teme la muerte no goza la vida. (He who fears death cannot enjoy life)  
—Spanish Proverb  
Grief—A Lesson in Survival  
What do I do now that you're gone? W ell, when there's nothing else going on, which is quite often, I sit in a corner  
and I cry until I am too numbed to feel. Paralyzed motionless for a while, nothing moving inside or out. Then I  
think how much I miss you. Then I feel fear , pain, loneliness, desolation. Then I cry until I am too numbed to feel.  
Inter esting pastime(Colgr ove et al., [10.32], p. 18).  
Have you ever felt like this? If so, you are not alone. Loss and grief are an inevitable part of all our lives. Feelings  
of desolation, loneliness, and heartache, accompanied by painful memories, are common reactions to loss, disaster,  
and misfortune. Ironically , such painful emotions may serve a useful function. Evolutionary psychologists suggest  
that bereavement and grief may be adaptive mechanisms for both human and nonhuman animals. The pain may  
motivate parents and children or mates to search for one another. Obvious signs of distress also may be adaptive  
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because they bring the group to the aid of the bereaved individual. Furthermore, grief makes us aware of the fragile  
nature of life, and reminds us to protect, cherish, and feel grateful for the many gifts that remain.  
What does it mean if someone seems emotionless after a significant loss? Grieving is a complicated and personal  
process. Just as there is no right way to die, there is no right way to grieve (Figure10.6). People who restrain their  
grief may be following the rules for emotional display that prevail in their cultural group. Moreover, although  
outward signs of strong emotion may be the most obvious expression of grief, they are not the only way grief is  
expressed.  
Figure 10.6 GrievingIndividuals vary in  
their emotional reactions to loss.  
Some theorists have proposed that there are four stages in the “normal” grieving process (Bowlby, [10.18];  
Morrow, [10.132]; Parkes, [10.138], [10.139]). In the initial phase, shock and numbness, bereaved individuals may  
seem dazed and may feel little emotion other than numbness or emptiness. They also may deny the death, insisting  
that a mistake has been made.  
In the second stage, individuals enter a period of yearning and searching, experiencing intense longing for the  
loved one and pangs of guilt, anger , and resentment. They may also experience illusions. They “see” the deceased  
person in his or her favorite chair or in the face of a stranger. They also report having vivid dreams in which the  
deceased is still alive, or they feel the “presence” of the dead person. In addition, they may experience strong guilt  
feelings (“If only I had gotten her to a doctor sooner” “I should have been more loving”) and anger or resentment  
(“Why wasn't he more careful?” “It isn't fair that I'm the one left behind”).  
Once the powerful feelings of yearning subside, bereaved individuals reportedly enter the third stage,  
disorganization and despair. Life seems to lose its meaning. The mourners feel listless, apathetic, and submissive.  
As time goes by , however , they gradually begin to accept the loss both intellectually (the loss makes sense) and  
emotionally (memories are pleasurable as well as painful). This acceptance, combined with building a new selfidentity (“I am a single mother” “W e are no longer a couple”), characterizes the fourth and final stage of grief—  
r eor ganization and recovery.  
This is just one model for how some people may grieve, and once again, grief is obviously not the same for  
everyone. W e all vary in the way we grieve, the supposed stages of grief we experience, and the length of time  
needed for “recovery” (Hooghe, [10.82]; Neimeyer, [10.135]; T seng et al., [10.170]).  
Before going on, it's important to note a seldom mentioned fact—death sometimes also brings strong feelings of  
guilt and anger or even relief and happiness! When death ends the suffering of a loved one, a tormented or abusive  
relationship, or the burden of caring for a terminally ill person, it's normal to experience such emotions.  
Unfortunately , most people are ashamed of these feelings and suffer alone with their mixed emotions, never  
knowing that such feelings are common and healthy responses. One of the many benefits of studying psychology is  
discovering that our “shameful” emotions are almost always a natural part of the human experience. For more  
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information on this topic, a riveting book called Liberating Losses, by Jennifer Elison and Chris McGonigle  
([10.43]), provides a personal and pragmatic look at what they call “relieved grievers.” The following Try This  
Y ourself offers general tips for dealing with your own and others' grief.  
Try This Y ourself Dealing with Grief  
What can you say or do to help another who has recently lost a loved one? Recognizing the large variation in how  
people grieve, your quiet presence and caring are generally the best type of response. T ake your cues from the  
bereaved persons. If they're busily working around the house, or mention wanting to get out of the house, or go to a  
movie, join them. If they want to talk, listen.  
When it comes to dealing with your own losses and grief, you may find the following tips helpful (Cacciatore &  
Rubin, [10.22]; Goldman, [10.68]; Neimeyer & Kosminsky, [10.136]).  
1\.   
Expect the unexpected. Although grief is an inevitable part of all our lives, we're generally unprepared for the  
magnitude and range of mixed emotions that it often entails. Heartache, sadness, and loneliness are expected. But  
as we've just seen, we also may feel relieved, angry , or happy . Recognizing that you have a right to your emotions,  
whatever they are, and that the intensity of feelings will soften over time, are valuable aids to successful coping.  
Mindfulness practices may also be helpful (Chapters 3 and 5).  
2\.   
T ake care of yourself. Accept the company and comfort of others. Most people genuinely want to help, and  
assigning them tasks and chores is a gift for all concerned. Comfort yourself by avoiding unnecessary stress,  
getting plenty of rest, and giving yourself permission to enjoy life whenever possible.  
3\.   
Set up a daily activity schedule. One of the best ways to offset the lethargy and depression of grief is to force  
yourself to fill your time with useful activities (studying, washing your car, doing the laundry , and so on). Outings  
with friends will help you focus on something other than your loss. If you want to relax and avoid talking about  
your loss, plan activities like going to a movie or an athletic event.  
4\.   
Seek help. Having the support of loving friends and family helps offset the loneliness and stress of grief.  
Recognize, however, that professional counseling may be necessary in cases of extreme or prolonged numbness,  
anger, guilt, or depression. (Y ou'll learn more about depression and its treatment in Chapters 14 and 15.)  
Attitudes toward Death and Dying  
Cultures around the world interpret and respond to death in widely different ways: “Funerals are the occasion for  
avoiding people or holding parties, for fighting or having sexual orgies, for weeping or laughing, in a thousand  
combinations” (Metcalf & Huntington, [10.124], p. 62).  
Similarly , subcultures within the United States also have different responses to death (Figure10.7). Irish  
Americans are likely to believe the dead deserve a good send-off—a wake with food, drink, and jokes. Blacks in  
America traditionally regard funerals as a time for serious grief, demonstrated in some congregations by wailing  
and singing spirituals. And most Japanese Americans try to restrain their grief and smile so as not to burden others  
with their pain. They also want to avoid the shame associated with losing emotional control (Corr et al., [10.36];  
Kastenbaum, [10.89]; Schim et al., [10.151]).  
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Figure 10.7 Culture influences our response to deathIn October 2006, a  
dairy truck driver took over a one-room Amish schoolhouse in  
Pennsylvania, killed and gravely injured several young girls, then shot  
himself. Instead of responding in rage, his Amish neighbors attended his  
funeral. Amish leaders urged forgiveness for the killer and called for a  
fund to aid his wife and three children. Rather than creating an on-site  
memorial, the schoolhouse was razed, to be replaced by pasture. What do  
you think of this response? The fact that many Americans were offended,  
shocked, or simply surprised by the Amish reaction illustrates how  
strongly culture affects our emotion, beliefs, and values.  
Attitudes toward death and dying vary not only among cultures and subcultures but also with age. As adults, we  
understand death in terms of three basic concepts: (1) permanence—once a living thing dies, it cannot be brought  
back to life; (2) universality—all living things eventually die; and (3) nonfunctionality—all living functions,  
including thought, movement, and vital signs, end at death.  
Research shows that permanence, the notion that death cannot be reversed, is the first and most easily understood  
concept (Figure10.8). Understanding of universality comes slightly later. By about the age of seven, most children  
have mastered nonfunctionality and have an adultlike understanding of death. Adults may fear that discussing  
death with children and adolescents will make them unduly anxious. But those who are offered open, honest  
discussions of death have an easier time accepting it (Kastenbaum, [10.89]; Neimeyer & Kosminsky, [10.136]; Sori  
& Biank, [10.160]).  
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Figure 10.8 How do children  
understand death?Preschoolers seem  
to accept the fact that the dead  
person cannot get up again, perhaps  
because of their experiences with  
dead butterflies and beetles found  
while playing outside (Furman,  
[10.59]). Later , they begin to  
understand all that death entails and  
that they , too, will someday die.  
Death—Our Final Developmental T ask  
Have you thought about your own death? W ould you like to die suddenly and alone? Or would you prefer to know  
ahead of time so you could plan your funeral and spend time saying good-bye to your family and friends? If you  
find thinking about these questions uncomfortable, it may be because most people in W estern societies try to avoid  
thinking about death. However , the better we understand death, and the more wisely we approach it, the more fully  
we can live until it comes.  
During the Middle Ages (from about the fifth until the sixteenth century), people were expected to recognize when  
death was approaching so they could say their farewells and die with dignity , surrounded by loved ones. In recent  
times, W estern societies have moved death out of the home and put it into the hospital and funeral parlor. Rather  
than personally caring for our dying family and friends, we have shifted responsibility to “experts”—physicians  
and morticians. W e have made death a medical failure rather than a natural part of the life cycle.  
This avoidance of death and dying may be changing, however. Since the late 1990s, right-to-die and death-withdignity advocates have been working to bring death out in the open. And mental health professionals have  
suggested that understanding the psychological processes of death and dying may play a significant role in good  
adjustment (Leaming & Dickinson, [10.106]).  
Confronting our own death is the last major crisis we face in life. What is it like? Is there a “best” way to prepare to  
die? Is there such a thing as a “good death”? After spending hundreds of hours at the bedsides of the terminally ill,  
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Elisabeth Kübler-Ross developed a controversial stage theory of the psychological processes surrounding death  
([10.100], [10.101], [10.102]).  
Based on interviews with individuals facing imminent death, Kübler-Ross proposed that most people go through  
five sequential stages when facing death:  
•Denialof the terminal condition (“This can't be true; it's a mistake!”)  
•Anger(“Why me? It isn't fair!”)  
•Bargaining(“God, if you let me live, I'll dedicate my life to you!”)  
•Depression(“I'm losing everyone and everything I hold dear .”)  
•Acceptance(“I know that death is inevitable and my time is near .”)  
For more information on Kübler-Ross's theory and dealing with your own and others' death anxiety , see the  
following Myth Busters and the Try this Y ourself.  
Let us endeavor so to live that when we come to die even the undertaker will be sorry.  
—Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) (Author , Humorist)  
Myth Busters Kübler-Ross's Theory—A National Myth?  
Like the proposed four stages of grief, the five-stage sequence for dying has not been scientifically validated. Some  
critics point out that each person's bereavement or death is a unique experience and that some people don't have  
time to go through all five stages. Furthermore, the dying person's emotions and reactions depend on personality ,  
life situation, age, and so on. Others worry that popularizing such a stage theory will cause further avoidance and  
stereotyping of those who are grieving or dying (“He's just in the anger stage right now”) and that grieving or  
dying people may feel pressured to conform to the stages Kübler-Ross described (Corr , [10.35]; Flamez et al.,  
[10.50]; Lilienfeld et al., [10.1 12]).  
In spite of these drawbacks, Kübler-Ross's theory has encouraged research into a long-neglected topic.  
Thanatology, the study of death and dying, has become a major topic in human development. Thanks in part to  
thanatology research, the dying are being helped to die with dignity by the hospicemovement. These organizations  
have trained staff and volunteers to provide loving support for the terminally ill and their families in special  
facilities, hospitals, or the persons' own homes (Franz & LaForge, [10.52]; Goel et al., [10.67]; Kasl-Godley et al.,  
[10.88]).  
One influential contribution by Kübler-Ross ([10.99]) may have been her suggestion that:  
It is the denial of death that is partially responsible for [people] living empty , purposeless lives; for when you live  
as if you'll live forever , it becomes too easy to postpone the things you know you must do. In contrast, when you  
fully understand that each day you awaken could be the last you have, you take the time that day to grow , to  
become more of who you really are, to r each out to other human beings (p. 164).  
Try This Y ourself Coping with Y our Own Death Anxiety  
W oody Allen once said, “It's not that I'm afraid to die. I just don't want to be there when it happens.” Although  
some people who are very old and in poor health may welcome death, most of us have difficulty facing it.  
One of the most important elements of critical thinking is self-knowledge, which includes the ability to critically  
evaluate our deepest and most private fears.  
Death Anxiety Questionnaire  
T o test your own level of death anxiety , indicate your response according to the following scale:  
0 1 2  
not at allsomewhatvery much  
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________1.   
Do you worry about dying?  
________2.   
Does it bother you that you may die before you have done everything you wanted to do?  
________3.   
Do you worry that you may be very ill for a long time before you die?  
________4.   
Does it upset you to think that others may see you suffering before you die?  
________5.   
Do you worry that dying may be very painful?  
________6.   
Do you worry that the persons closest to you won't be with you when you are dying?  
________7.   
Do you worry that you may be alone when you are dying?  
________8.   
Are you bothered by the thought that you might lose control of your mind before death?  
________9.   
Do you worry that expenses connected with your death will be a burden to other people?  
________10.   
Does it worry you that your will or instructions about your belongings may not be carried out after you die?  
________11.   
Are you afraid that you may be buried before you are really dead?  
________12.   
Does the thought of leaving loved ones behind when you die disturb you?  
________13.   
Do you worry that those you care about may not remember you after your death?  
________14.   
Are you worried by the thought that with death you will be gone forever?  
________15.   
Are you worried about not knowing what to expect after death?  
How does your total score compare to the national average of 8.5? When this same test was given to nursing-home  
residents, senior citizens, and college students, researchers found no significant differences, despite the fact that  
those tested ranged in age from 18 to 80.  
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Source: H. R. Conte, M. B. W einer, & R. Plutchik(1982). Measuring death anxiety: Conceptual, psychometric,  
and factor-analytic aspects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 775–785.Reprinted with  
permission.  
Retrieval Practice 10.4 Challenges of Adulthood  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Researchers suggest that during a ________divorce, ex-spouses learn how to let go, develop new social ties, and  
redefine parental roles (when children are involved).  
a. midlife  
b. patrimonial  
c. healthy  
d. Gottman-style  
2\.   
Which of the following is NOT one of the seven principles recommended for enduring love?  
a. Solve your solvable problems.  
b. Maintain a separate identity.  
c. Nurture your fondness and admiration.  
d. Let your partner influence you.  
3\.   
Briefly describe why someone might not report or leave an abusive relationship.  
4\.   
The ________theory of aging says that one should remain active and involved in fulfilling activities as long as  
possible.  
a. social facilitation  
b. activity  
c. involvement  
d. life-enhancement  
5\.   
Match the following statements with Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's five-stage theory of death and dying:  
a.“I understand that I'm dying, but if I could just have a little more time…”  
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b.“I refuse to believe the doctors. I want a fourth opinion.”  
c.“I know my time is near . I'd better make plans for my spouse and children.”  
d.“Why me? I've been a good person. I don't deserve this.”  
e.“I'm losing everything. I'll never see my children again. This is so hard.”  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), we will explore some of the many factors that explain groupthink, which is a  
type of faulty decision making that occurs when maintaining group harmony becomes more desirable than making  
a good decision. In this chapter, we discussed some of the reasons people may stay in abusive relationships. How  
might groupthink also explain why someone decides to stay?


	11. Chapter 11

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1 1.1 Studying Human Sexuality  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each learning objective in your own  
words.  
Summarize the early studies and modern research in human sexuality .  
•Describethe limits and contributions of the early studies of sexuality .  
•Discussthe advances in modern sexuality research and the major findings and value of cross-cultural studies  
of sexuality .  
Sexualityis generally described as the ways in which we experience and express ourselves as sexual beings.  
Throughout time, it has been a major component of human happiness and well-being, and people have probably  
always been interested in learning more about their own and others' sexuality . But cultural and religious forces  
have often attempted to suppress this interest.  
Early Studies  
During the nineteenth century, people in polite society avoided mentioning any part of the body covered by  
clothing, so the breast of chickens became known as “white meat.” Male doctors examined female patients in  
totally dark rooms, and some people even covered piano legs for the sake of propriety (Carroll, [11.38]; Orrells,  
[1 1.143]; Pettit & Hegarty , [1 1.146]).  
Throughout this V ictorian period, medical experts warned that masturbation led to blindness, impotence, acne, and  
insanity . Believing a bland diet helped suppress sexual desire, Dr . John Harvey Kellogg and Sylvester Graham  
developed the original Kellogg's Corn Flakes and graham crackers and marketed them as foods that would  
discourage masturbation (Maunder, [1 1.124]; Money et al., [11.131]; Perelman, [11.145]). One of the most serious  
concerns of many doctors was nocturnal emissions (during so-called “wet dreams”), which were believed to cause  
brain damage and death. Special devices were even marketed for men to wear at night to prevent sexual arousal  
(Figure11.1).  
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Figure 11.1 V ictorian  
sexual practice  
During the nineteenth  
century , men were  
encouraged to wear  
spiked rings around  
their penises at night.  
Can you explain why?  
Answer:The  
V ictorians believed  
nighttime erections and  
emissions (“wet  
dreams”) were  
dangerous. If the man  
had an erection, the  
spikes would cause  
pain and awaken him.  
In light of modern knowledge, it is hard to understand these practices and myths. One of the first physicians to  
question them was Havelock Ellis (1858–1939). When he first heard of the dangers of nocturnal emissions, Ellis  
was frightened; he had had personal experience with the problem. His fear led him to frantically search the medical  
literature, where instead of a cure he found only predictions of gruesome illness and eventual death. He was so  
upset he contemplated suicide.  
Ellis eventually decided he could give meaning to his life by keeping a detailed diary of his deterioration. He  
planned to dedicate the book to science when he died. However, after several months of careful observation, Ellis  
realized that the experts were wrong. He wasn't dying. He wasn't even sick. Angry that he had been so  
misinformed, he spent the rest of his life developing reliable and accurate sex information. Today , thanks in part to  
his informal case study of his own sexuality , Havelock Ellis is acknowledged as one of the most influential  
pioneers in the field of sex research.  
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Modern Research  
One of the earliest efforts in modern sex research came from Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues ([11.97], [11.98]),  
who personally surveyed and interviewed more than 18,000 participants, asking detailed questions about their  
sexual activities and preferences. The results shocked the nation. Kinsey reported, for instance, that 37% of men  
and 13% of women had engaged in adult same-sex behavior to the point of orgasm. Although Kinsey's  
interviewing techniques were excellent, his data has been heavily criticized for violating certain ethical and  
research standards.  
Since Kinsey's time, literally thousands of similar surveys and interviews have been conducted on such topics as  
contraception, abortion, premarital sex, sexual orientation, and sexual behavior (Flores et al., [11.66]; Laumann et  
al., [1 1.104]; Sandberg, [11.156]). By comparing Kinsey's data to the responses found in later surveys, we can see  
how sexual practices have changed over the years. Given the value of empirical, scientifically based surveys and  
interviews, particularly for the lesbian, gay , bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community , the American  
Psychological Association recently adopted an official resolution recommending that research studies include  
sexual orientation and gender identity in their data collection (American Psychological Association, [11.10]).  
In addition to surveys, interviews, and case studies, some researchers have employed biological research methods,  
as well as direct laboratory experimentation and observational methods. For example, modern biological  
researchers have found that tasks that trigger sexual arousal, such as looking at erotic photographs, activate  
different parts of the brain than tasks that trigger feelings of love, such as looking at a photograph of a beloved  
sibling or parent (Cacioppo et al., [11.34]).  
Direct laboratory experimentation and observation were first conducted by William Masters and V irginia Johnson  
([1 1.120], [11.121], [11.122]) and their research colleagues. T o experimentally document the physiological changes  
that occur in sexual arousal and response, they first enlisted several hundred male and female volunteers. Then,  
using intricate physiological measuring devices, the researchers carefully monitored participants' bodily responses  
as they masturbated or engaged in sexual intercourse. Masters and Johnson's research findings have been hailed as  
a major contribution to our knowledge of sexual physiology . A brief summary of their results is presented later in  
this chapter .  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Sexuality Across Cultures  
Sex researchers interested in both similarities and variations in human sexual behavior often conduct cross-cultural  
studies of sexual practices, techniques, and attitudes (e.g., Beach, [11.19]; Buss, [11.33]; Espinosa-Hernández et  
al., [1 1.61]). Their studies of different societies put sex in a broader perspective. T o illustrate, a cross-cultural study  
asked both U.S. and Dutch parents whether they would allow their teenage child to spend the night with a dating  
partner in their own home. Interestingly , only 9% of U.S parents said they would allow such a sleepover, compared  
to a whopping 93% of the Dutch parents (Schalet, [1 1.160]). This difference in perspectives illustrates cultural  
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differences in attitudes about sexuality , and in particular about adolescent sexuality . In the Netherlands, and many  
Scandinavian countries, comprehensive sex education, including information about birth control and sexual  
pleasuring, is required. In contrast, such programs continue to be controversial in the United States.  
Cross-cultural studies of sex also help counteract ethnocentrism, the tendency to judge our own cultural practices  
as “normal” and preferable to those of other groups. For example, did you know that less than half of the 168  
cultures studied around the world engage in romantic/sexual kissing (Jankowiak et al., [11.89])? In fact, couples in  
Sub-Saharan Africa, New Guinea, the Amazon, and many native cultures in Central America find this type of  
kissing uncomfortable or even repulsive!  
Members of Tiwi society , who inhabit islands off the northern coast of Australia, believe young girls will not  
develop breasts or menstruate unless they first experience intercourse. In some cultures, adolescent boys routinely  
undergo harsh ceremonies, such as superincision, to initiate them into adulthood. During superincision, the  
foreskin of the penis is slit horizontally along the upper length of the foreskin, without removing any tissue  
(Gregersen, [1 1.78]; Marshall, [11.118]; Schlegel & Barry , [1 1.161]). Figure11.2 gives other examples of cultural  
variations in sexuality .  
Figure 11.2 Cross-cultural differences in sexual behaviorNote: “Inis Beag” is a pseudonym  
used to protect the privacy of residents of this Irish island, which is another interesting cultural  
difference. The other communities cited apparently don't require pseudonyms.Sources: Crooks  
& Baur, 2016; Marshall, 1971; Money et al., 1991.  
Although other cultures' practices may seem unnatural and strange to us, we often forget that our own sexual rituals  
may appear equally curious to others. If the description of the practice of superincision bothered you, how do you  
feel about our own culture's routine circumcision of infant boys? At one point, the American Academy of  
Pediatrics (AAP) decided that the reported medical benefits of circumcision were so statistically small that the  
procedure should notbe routinely performed (American Academy of Pediatrics, [11.6], [11.7]). This position was  
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later revised. In 2012, the AAP concluded that the health benefits of newborn male circumcision outweighed the  
risks, though the choice should still be left to parents (American Academy of Pediatrics, [11.8]). However,  
physicians and health experts in other parts of the W estern world, including Europe, Canada, and Australia,  
contend that there is no compelling medical benefit to newborn circumcision, and that the AAP reversal may  
reflect a cultural or religious rationale (Earp, [11.57]; Frisch et al., [11.69]; Myers, [11.136]). Others have argued  
that, at a minimum, we should wait until the boys are old enough to decide for themselves (Erlings, [11.60]).  
Retrieval Practice 1 1.1 Studying Human Sexuality  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Describe how masturbation and nocturnal emissions were viewed during the Victorian period.  
2\.   
________was a major pioneer in sex research who used an informal case study method to record his own  
sexuality .  
a. B. F . Skinner  
b. Sigmund Freud  
c. Alfred Kinsey  
d. Havelock Ellis  
3\.   
Some of the earliest and most extensive surveys and interviews of human sexual behavior in the United States were  
conducted by ________.  
a. Havelock Ellis  
b. William Masters and V irginia Johnson  
c. Emily and John Roper  
d. Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues  
4\.   
Direct laboratory experimentation and observation of human sexuality were first conducted by ________.  
a. Alfred Kinsey  
b. William Masters and V irginia Johnson  
c. Havelock Ellis  
d. all of these individuals  
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5\.   
Cross-cultural studies of human sexuality help counteract ________, the tendency to view our culture's sexual  
practices as normal and preferable to those of other groups.  
a. sexual prejudice  
b. ethnic typing  
c. ethnocentrism  
d. sexual predation  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following questions will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction and Research Methods), you discovered the limitations of survey data and the problems  
of sampling bias. Given that much of what we know about sexual behavior is gathered by surveys, what potential  
concerns do you have about some of the sexuality data reported in this chapter? What kinds of sexual behaviors  
may be overreported or underreported?  
.  
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1 1.2 Sexual Identity  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the key terms and concepts underlying sex versus gender .  
•Contrastsex, gender , and gender role.  
•Differentiateamong being transgender, cross-dressing, and sexual orientation.  
•Discussthe major physical and psychological sex and gender differences.  
•Describethe two major theories of gender-role development.  
Why is it that the first question most people ask after a baby is born is “Is it a girl or a boy?” What would life be like if there were no divisions according to maleness  
or femaleness? W ould your career plans or friendship patterns change? These questions reflect the role of sexand genderin our lives.  
Describing Sex and Gender  
W e allow our ignorance to prevail upon us and make us think we can survive alone, alone in patches, alone in groups, alone in races, even alone in genders.  
—Maya Angelou (American Poet, Author , Dancer)  
The term sexgenerally refers to the biological differences between men and women (such as having a penis or vagina) or to sexual activities (such as masturbation  
and intercourse). Gender, on the other hand, encompasses the psychological and sociocultural traits typically associated with one sex (such as “masculinity” and  
“femininity”). There are at least seven dimensions or elements of sex and two of gender (T able11.1). In short, sexis physical and genderis mental.  
T able11.1Dimensions of Sex and Gender  
Male Female  
People give me such a hard time because I don't wear dresses. What's that  
got to do with anything?  
—Ellen DeGeneres  
This quote by Ellen DeGeneres and the public pressure for her to wear  
dresses is a good example of which dimension of gender?  
Sex Dimensions   
1.Chromosomes XY XX  
2.Gonads T estes Ovaries  
3.Hormones Mainly androgens Mainly estrogens  
4.External genitals Penis, scrotum  
Labia minor, clitoris,  
vaginal opening  
5.Internal accessory  
organs  
Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, vas deferens,  
ejaculatory duct, Cowper's gland  
V agina, uterus,  
fallopian tubes, cervix  
6.Secondary sex  
characteristics  
Beard, lower voice, wider shoulders, sperm  
emission  
Breasts, wider hips,  
menstruation  
7.Sexual orientation Heterosexual, gay , bisexual  
Heterosexual, lesbian,  
bisexual  
Gender Dimensions   
8.Gender identity  
(self-definition)  
Perceives self as male  
Perceives self as  
female  
9.Gender-role  
(societal  
expectations)  
Masculine (“Boys like trucks and sports”)  
Feminine (“Girls like  
dolls and clothes”)  
It's also important to point out that gender identity—our multifaceted sense of self-identification as belonging to the male or female sex— is formed in our first few  
years of life. Similarly , we develop an understanding of gender roles, meaning the culturally and socially defined prescriptions and expectations about the thoughts,  
feelings, and actions of men and women, largely before we are consciously aware of them (Brannon, [11.29]; Keatley et al., [11.93]; T osh, [11.181]). Y et they are  
very influential in our adult lives.  
When gender role prescriptions and beliefs are overly general, and applied to all men and women, they're known as gender stereotypes. In our culture, these  
stereotypes include various beliefs and expectations. For instance, men are expected to be more independent, aggressive, dominant, and achieving than women. In  
contrast, women are expected to be more dependent, passive, emotional, and “naturally” interested in children than men (Leaper & Farkas, [11.108]; O'Neil,  
[1 1.142]; W ood & Fixmer-Oraiz, [1 1.190]).  
Can you predict some of the inherent dangers with these stereotypes? One study found, for instance, that identifying a job searcher as either male or female on a  
Google ad search for jobs made a big difference. Ads for highly paid executive positions were successfully responded to 1,816 times by male applicants, but only 311  
times by female applicants (Datta et al., [11.49]). And, as you've probably heard, women in the United States still tend to earn lower salaries than men, even when  
they hold the same job (Gibbs, [1 1.74]; Hegewisch & DuMonthier, [1 1.84]; Wright, [1 1.192]). See the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Is Gender Income Inequality Real?  
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Do you recall the heavy focus on income inequalities between the rich and all other groups during the presidential election in 2016? Although most Americans were  
unhappy with the wealth and income distribution, very little was said about the persistent gender, race, and ethnicity income disparities.  
A study from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics clearly addressed this issue (Hegewisch & DuMonthier, [1 1.84]). Researchers found that the gender wage gap for  
weekly full-time workers in the United States widened from 2014 to 2015 (the latest available data). Between 2014 and 2015, women's earnings increased by 0.09%,  
whereas men's earnings increased by 2.6%.  
As you can see in T able11.2, women of all major racial and ethnic groups earn less than men of the same groups. Note also that Hispanic workers have the lowest  
overall median weekly earnings, whereas Asian workers have the highest overall median weekly earnings.  
T able11.2Median W eekly Earnings and Gender Earnings Ratio for Full-Time W orkers, 16 Y ears and Older by Race/Ethnic Background, 2014 and 2015  
2015 2014 (in 2015 dollars)  
Racial/Ethnic  
Background  
W omen Men  
Female Earnings as % of Male  
Earnings of Same Group  
Female Earnings as % of  
White Male Earnings  
W omen Men  
Female Earnings as % of Male  
Earnings of Same Group  
Female Earnings as % of  
White Male Earnings  
All  
Races/Ethnicities  
$726 $895 81.1% N/A $720 $872 82.5% N/A  
White $743 $920 80.8% 80.8% $735 $898 81.8% 81.8%  
Black $615 $680 90.4% 66.8% $612 $681 89.9% 68.1%  
Hispanic $566 $631 89.7% 61.5% $549 $617 89.0% 61.1%  
Asians $877 $1,129 77.7% 95.3% $842 $1,081 77.9% 93.8%  
Sources:The Gender W age Gap ([11.178]); U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics ([11.183]).  
How can we explain these findings? The lower earnings for women may result from several factors. One is occupational segregation—the fact that many women  
work in occupations dominated mainly by women. W omen also face discrimination in compensation, recruitment, and hiring, as well as in bonuses and promotions.  
Can you see how these same factors might also explain the income disparities between racial and ethnic groups? Or how these disparities might be causally linked  
with poorer educational opportunities, housing, and mental and physical health outcomes for members of these groups (Alvarez et al., [11.5]; Smith & Trimble,  
[1 1.169]; Williams et al., [1 1.188])?  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Hegewisch & DuMonthier, [1 1.84]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , or/and archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a quasiexperimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and public reports of  
research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of  
scientific research.  
Along with earning less, women are underrepresented in certain types of stereotypically male occupations in science, engineering, and technology. Why? Researchers  
in one study asked science faculty from a research-intensive university to evaluate the application materials of a student who was applying for a laboratory manager  
position (Moss-Racusin et al., [11.132]). Identical applications were assigned either a male name or a female name. Sadly, but in line with predictions, faculty  
members rated the applicant who was given a male name as significantly more competent and hirable than the (identical) applicant with a female name. The faculty  
also suggested a higher starting salary for the male applicant. Both male and female professors were equally likely to make these gender-biased decisions. If even  
highly educated college professors of both sexes show such bias, does this explain why there are still relatively few women in certain careers? More importantly, can  
you think of ways to change these and other examples of gender bias?  
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Before going on, keep in mind that men also suffer from traditional gender roles. And a recent meta-analysis of almost 20,000 participants found that conforming to  
masculine norms is linked with poorer social functioning and mental health, as well as with being less willing to seek psychological help (Wong et al., [11.110]).  
Androgyny  
One way to diminish gender bias and/or gender-role stereotypes is to encourage the expression of both the “masculine” and “feminine” characteristics and traits  
found in virtually every individual. For instance, both men and women could learn to be assertive and aggressive when necessary, but also gentle and nurturing.  
Combining characteristics in this way is known as androgyny [an-DRAH-juh-nee](see the following Try This Y ourself). Interestingly , research finds that this  
blending of traits leads to higher self-esteem and more success and adjustment in today's complex society because it allows us to display whatever behaviors and  
traits are most appropriate in a given situation (Bem, [11.22], [11.23]; Brannon, [11.29]; W ood & Fixmer-Oraiz, [1 1.190]).  
Try This Y ourself Are Y ou Androgynous?  
Social psychologist Sandra Bem ([11.21], [11.23]) developed a personality measure for androgyny that has been widely used in research. Y ou can take this version of  
Bem's test by rating yourself on the following items. Give yourself a number between I (never or almost never true) and 7 (always or almost always true):  
1._____ Analytical  
2._____ Affectionate  
3._____ Competitive  
4._____ Compassionate  
5._____ Aggressive  
6._____ Cheerful  
7._____ Independent  
8._____ Gentle  
9._____ Athletic  
10._____ Sensitive  
Now add up your points for all the odd-numbered items; then add up your points for the even-numbered items. If you have a higher total on the odd-numbered items,  
you are more “masculine.” If you scored higher on the even-numbered items, you are more “feminine” in your adherence to traditional gender roles. If your score is  
fairly even, you are more androgynous.  
Studies also show that gender roles are becoming less rigidly defined (Brannon, [11.29]; Levant & W ong, [11.110]; Signorielli, [11.167]). However, a survey of  
college students at a comparatively liberal university in California found that more than two-thirds of both women and men strongly prefer traditional gender roles  
when it comes to marriage proposals. In fact, the title of the research article is: “Girls don't propose! Ew.” (Robnett & Leaper , [1 1.106]). Furthermore, over 60% of  
the women surveyed were either “very willing” or “somewhat willing” to take their husband's surname.  
In a later , related study on traditional heterosexual dating and courtship patterns, researchers found that both women and men generally agreed that men should  
initiate and pay for a date, hold the door open for the woman, and propose marriage, whereas women should take the man's surname after marriage (Paynter &  
Leaper, 2017). Rachael Robnett, the lead author on the first study , suggested that this type of “benevolent sexism” looks positive on the surface, but it contributes to  
power differentials between men and women and does a disservice to women (Lasnier, [1 1.102]). What do you think? W ould relationships be better if both men and  
women were free to initiate and pay for dates, open their own doors, and propose marriage, as well as if they both kept their own names when they married?  
It is fatal to be a man or woman pur e and simple; one must be woman-manly or man-womanly .… Some marriage of opposites has to be consummated.  
—V ir ginia W oolf (Author , Journalist)  
Explaining Sex and Gender  
In the previous section, we describedsex and gender . Now we need to explainsome of their core issues. How do we develop our gender identity? Are there clear  
gender and sex differences between men and women? If so, what causes these differences, and are they important? These are some of the most controversial  
questions in the ongoing nature versus nurture debate. Scientists on the nature side suggest that inborn genetic and biological factors not only determine our physical  
sex, but also help program our gender identity . In contrast, those on the nurture side believe that most aspects of gender and human sexuality are determined largely  
by social influences. As you've seen throughout this text, the answer to the debate is almost always provided by the biopsychosocial model, which proposes an  
interaction among biology , psychology , and social forces.  
Gender Identity  
One of the best ways to illustrate the significance of gender identity, and the fine nuances of gender and sex differences, is through the famous case study of  
“John/Joan.” In 1963, identical twin boys were taken to their family doctor to be circumcised. Tragically , the first twin's penis was damaged beyond repair . Following  
the medical experts' advice, the child's testes were removed, his genitalia modified, and estrogen administered so he could be raised as a girl.  
During their childhood, the twins were brought to Johns Hopkins Hospital each year for physical and psychological evaluations, and the story of “John/Joan” (the  
name used by Johns Hopkins) was heralded as proof that gender is made—not born. Unfortunately , follow-up studies indicate that, despite being raised from infancy  
as a girl, “Joan” did not feel like a girl and avoided most female activities and interests. As she entered adolescence, her appearance and masculine way of walking  
led classmates to tease her and call her “cave woman.” By age 14, she was so unhappy that she contemplated suicide. Her father tearfully explained what had  
happened earlier, and for Joan, “All of a sudden everything clicked. For the first time, things made sense, and I understood who and what I was” (Thompson,  
[1 1.179], p. 83).  
After the truth came out, “John/Joan” reclaimed his male gender identity and renamed himself David (Figure11.3). Following a double mastectomy (removal of both  
breasts) and construction of an artificial penis, he married a woman and adopted her children. David, his parents, and his twin brother all suffered enormously from  
the original accident and its long aftermath. In 2004, David died by suicide. No one knows what went through David's mind when he decided to end his life.  
However, he had just separated from his wife, lost his job, and experienced the failure of a big investment. His twin brother had also ended his own life shortly  
before. Most suicides, experts say , “have multiple motives, which come together in a perfect storm of misery” (Colapinto, [11.43]).  
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Figure 11.3 David, previously known as  
“John/Joan”  
If you apply the dimensions of sex and gender, which we discussed earlier and displayed in T able 11.1, to the case of “John/Joan,” you can see why this is such an  
influential case study . Although he was born a chromosomal male, the child's genital sex was altered first by the doctor who accidentally destroyed his penis, and  
later by surgeons who removed his testes and created a “preliminary” vagina. Experts at the time believed this surgery , along with female hormones and  
“appropriate” gender-role expectations of the parents, would be enough to create a stable female gender identity . But David ultimately rejected this female gender  
assignment.  
In contrast to the rare, tragic accident that created serious problems with gender identity for David, a much larger group of people who also struggle with gender  
identity were born with the biological characteristics of one sex, but identify with the other. This is known as being transgender(having a gender identity that does  
not match one's biological sex).  
What causes this type of gender identity confusion? Is gender identity a choice? People who are transgender often report feeling as if they are victims of a “birth  
defect,” and they tend to have a deep and lasting discomfort with their sexual anatomy. In fact, there is ample evidence (e.g., Saraswat et al., [11.158]) that gender  
identity is biologically driven, so it does not appear to be a personal choice or something that can be changed through therapy. Further evidence comes from a study  
with 32 transgender children, ages 5 to 12, indicating that their gender identity is deeply held and is not the result of confusion about gender identity or pretense  
(Olson et al., [1 1.141]). The study used implicit measures that operate outside conscious awareness and are, therefore, less susceptible to modification than self-report  
measures. These and other studies of transgender children suggest that gender identity is really deeply held and not just a phase that could be “outgrown.”  
Sadly , transgender children and adults are more likely to experience ostracism, harassment, bullying, and psychological problems, including self-mutilation, suicide  
attempts, and drug abuse (Ghabrial, [11.72]; Rinehart & Espelage, [11.149]; T osh, [11.181]). In some cases, they undergo medical procedures and/or drug therapies to  
change their bodies physically to be more like the other sex (Figure11.4). The good news is that transgender kids (ages 3 to 12) who have transitioned, and are  
treated like the gender they identify with, do not differ from other kids on rates of depression and are only slightly higher on anxiety (Olson et al., [11.140]). So, this  
study suggests that living as the “wrong gender” leads to depression, not being transgender.  
Figure 11.4 The struggle for  
gender identityIn 2015, the  
public was fascinated by the  
story of Bruce Jenner's  
famous journey from being a  
male Olympic decathlon icon,  
referred to as the “world's  
greatest athlete,” to a woman,  
Caitlyn Jenner (pictured  
here). Caitlyn gave extensive  
interviews about this journey  
and her painful gender  
identity struggles, which were  
best summarized with her  
simple statement that “nature  
made a mistake” (Bissinger,  
[1 1.27]).  
People sometimes confuse being transgender with transvestism, gender-bending, or cr oss-dressing, in which individuals adopt the dress and often the gender-role  
behaviors typical of the other sex. Some individuals occasionally or routinely dress up as the other sex for personal or erotic pleasure, and some entertainers cross-  
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dress as part of their job. People who are transgender often dress in clothing opposite to their biological sex, but they're not considered to be “cross-dressing.” Their  
motivation is to look like the “right” sex, the one that matches their gender identity (Buehler, [1 1.32]; Colizzi et al., [11.44]; T osh, [11.181]).  
In addition, many people confuse cross-dressing and/or being transgender with sexual orientation, our emotional and erotic attraction toward the other sex  
(heterosexual), our own sex (gay or lesbian), or both sexes (bisexual). Sexual orientation will be further discussed later in this chapter, but at this point note that  
cross-dressers are usually heterosexual, whereas people who are transgender can be heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual.  
Sex and Gender Differences  
As we've just seen, gender identity is confusing to many. Also potentially confusing is the relationship of sex to gender and to the gender roles prescribed by societal  
expectations. Let's take some time to clarify how the two sexes differ .  
Physical anatomy is the most obvious biological sex difference between men and women (Concept Organizer11.1). Recall from Chapter 9 that puberty is a time  
during early adolescence in which maturation and hormone secretions lead to rapid development and changes in the female's ovaries, uterus, clitoris, and vagina, as  
well as in the male's testes, scrotum, and penis. Maturation and hormones also drive the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as enlarged breasts in  
women and facial hair in men, along with pubic hair in both sexes. In addition to biological sex differences, scientists have noted numerous psychological differences  
that affect our cognitive and personality development (T able11.3). A recent study found an interesting combination of biological and psychological factors in how  
men and women absorb visual information. Specifically, although the general visual process is the same for both groups, women pay more attention to faces than  
men and are more comfortable with increased eye contact (Coutrot et al., [11.45]).  
T able11.3Research-Supported Sex and Gender Differences(Note that these variations are statistically small and repr esent few meaningful differences.)  
Behavior More Often Shown by Men More Often Shown by W omen  
Sexual  
•Begin masturbating sooner in life cycle and higher overall  
occurrence rates  
•Start sexual life earlier and have first orgasm through masturbation  
•More likely to recognize their own sexual arousal  
•More orgasm consistency with sexual partner  
•Begin masturbating later in life cycle and lower overall occurrence  
rates  
•Start sexual life later and have first orgasm from partner stimulation  
•Less likely to recognize their own sexual arousal  
•Less orgasm consistency with sexual partner  
T ouching  
•T ouched, kissed, and cuddled less by parents  
•Less physical contact with other men and respond more negatively  
to being touched  
•More likely to initiate both casual and intimate touch with sexual  
partner  
•T ouched, kissed, and cuddled more by parents  
•More physical contact with other women and respond more positively  
to being touched  
•Less likely to initiate either casual or intimate touch with sexual partner  
Friendship  
•Larger number of friends and express friendship by shared activities  
•Smaller number of friends and express friendship by shared  
communication about self  
Personality  
•More aggressive from a very early age  
•More self-confident of future success  
•Attribute success to internal factors and failures to external factors  
•Achievement more task oriented; motives are mastery and  
competition  
•More self-validating  
•Higher self-esteem  
•Less aggressive from a very early age  
•Less self-confident of future success  
•Attribute success to external factors and failures to internal factors  
•Achievement more socially directed, with emphasis on selfimprovement  
•More dependent on others for validation  
•Lower self-esteem  
Cognitive  
abilities  
•Slightly superior in math and visuospatial skills •Slightly superior in verbal skills  
Sources: Carroll, [1 1.38]; Chaplin, [11.41]; Eagly , [1 1.56]; Forgasz et al., [11.68]; Hofstede et al., [11.86]; Schmitt, [11.162].  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 1 1.1 Major Physical Differences Between the Sexes  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
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Source:Miracle, Tina S., Miracle, Andrew W ., and Baumeister , Roy F ., Human Sexuality: Meeting Y our Basic Needs, 1st Edition, © 2003. Adapted by permission of  
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.  
Gender-Role Development  
By age 2, children are well aware of gender roles. From parents and other social forces, they quickly learn that boys “should” be strong, independent, aggressive,  
dominant, and achieving, whereas girls “should” be soft, dependent, passive, emotional, and “naturally” interested in children. Unfortunately, such expectations and  
stereotypes for how women and men should think, feel, or act may seriously limit both sexes in their choice of friendships, activities, and career goals (Best & Bush,  
[1 1.25]; Gianettoni & Guilley , [1 1.73]; Latu & Schmid Mast, [11.103]).  
The existence of similar gender roles in many cultures suggests that evolution and biology may play a role in their formation. However, most research emphasizes  
two major psychosocial theories of gender-role development: social-learning theory and cognitive-developmental theory ( Figure11.5). Social-learning theory  
emphasizes the power of the immediate situation and observable behaviors on gender-role development. Girls learn how to be “feminine,” and boys learn how to be  
“masculine” in two major ways: (1) They receive rewards or punishments for specific gender-role behaviors, and (2) they watch and imitate the behavior of others,  
particularly their same-sex parent (Bandura, [11.16], [11.17]; Risman & Davis, [11.150]). A boy who puts on his father's tie or baseball cap wins big, indulgent  
smiles from his parents. But what would happen if he put on his mother's nightgown or lipstick? Parents, teachers, and friends generally reward or punish behaviors  
according to traditional gender-role expectations. Thus, a child “socially learns” what it means to be male or female.  
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Figure 11.5 Gender-role developmentSocial-learning theory focuses on a child's passive  
process of learning about gender through observation, rewards, and punishments, whereas  
cognitive-developmental theory emphasizes a child's active role in building a gender schema.  
Which theory do you think best explains how the children in this photo learn what type of  
clothes are “appropriate” for their respective genders?  
According to cognitive-developmental theory, social learning is part of gender-role development, but it's much more than a passive process of receiving rewards or  
punishments and modeling others. Instead, cognitive developmentalists argue that children actively observe, interpret, and judge the world around them (Bem,  
[1 1.22], [11.23]; Leaper, [1 1.106]; Starr & Zurbriggen, [11.172]). As children process information about the world, they also create internal rules governing correct  
behaviors for boys and for girls. On the basis of these rules, they form gender schemas(mental images) of how they should act.  
Retrieval Practice 1 1.2 Sexual Identity  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide  
immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe how the term “gender” differs from “sex.”  
2\.   
________refers to one's self-identification as either a man or a woman.  
a. Sex role  
b. Assigned sex  
c. Gender dysphoria  
d. Gender identity  
3\.   
Androgynous is another word for ________.  
a. transgender , gay , or lesbian  
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b. having both male and female traits  
c. having an oversupply of androgens during prenatal development  
d. transvestite  
4\.   
A transgender person has a ________.  
a. mismatch between his or her gender identity and biological sex  
b. mismatch between his or her gender role and biological sex  
c. heterosexual preference for sexual gratification  
d. need to wear clothing of the other sex for sexual gratification  
5\.   
John has a male lover but also enjoys sexual relationships with women. His probable sexual orientation is ________.  
a. gay  
b. transgender  
c. bisexual  
d. heterosexual  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and chapters within  
this text.  
In Chapter 9 (Lifespan Development I), you learned about schemas, the foundation of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Explain how schemas are involved in  
the way that children learn and understand gender roles.  
.  
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1 1.3 Sexual Behavior  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the research findings about the sexual response cycle and sexual orientation.  
•ReviewMasters and Johnson's sexual response cycle and the key gender differences and similarities.  
•Discussthe myths and latest research on sexual orientation.  
Obviously , there is strong motivation to engage in sexual behavior . It's essential for the survival of our species, and it's also pleasurable. But sexualityincludes  
much more than reproduction. For most humans (and some other animals), a sexual relationship fulfills many needs, including the need for connection,  
intimacy , pleasure, and the release of sexual tension. Interestingly , sex may also play a critical role in pair bonding—the formation of enduring relationships  
between adult mates. A recent longitudinal study found that sexual satisfaction remained elevated approximately 48 hours after sex and that spouses who  
experienced stronger, lingering “afterglows” reported significantly higher marital satisfaction over time (Meltzer et al., [11.129]). However, another study  
revealed that engaging in more frequent sex is associated with greater overall well-being—but only up to a point (Muise et al., 2015). Past the frequency of once  
a week, satisfaction and well-being level off. It isn't that having sex more than once a week lessens satisfaction, it's just that you don't get more satisfaction past  
the “break-even point” of once a week.  
Sexual Arousal and Response  
Men and women, like waffles and pancakes, have the same basic ingredients when it comes to sexual arousal and response—and, overall, we are much more  
alike than different. But we also have obvious differences. How do we know this? How do researchers scientifically test what happens to the human body when  
an individual or a couple engages in sexual activities?  
As mentioned earlier, W illiam Masters and V irginia Johnson ([11.121]) were the first to conduct laboratory studies on what happens to the human body during  
sexual activity . They attached recording devices to male and female volunteers and monitored or filmed their physical responses as they moved from  
nonarousal, to orgasm, and back to nonarousal. They labeled the bodily changes during this series of events a sexual response cycle(Step-By-Step Diagram  
11.1). Later researchers expanded on their work, documenting differences between the male and female sexual response pattern (Figure11.6).  
Figure 11.6 Comparing male and female sexual response patternsAlthough the overall pattern of sexual response is similar in the two sexes, there is more  
variation in specific patterns among women.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 1 1.1 Masters and Johnson's V iew of the Sexual Response Cycle  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it  
CAREFULL Y!  
Masters and Johnson identified a typical, four-stage pattern of sexual response. Note that this simplified description does not account for individual variation,  
and should not be used to judge what's “normal.”  
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Sexual Orientation  
Of course, an essential part of our sexuality concerns whom we are sexually attracted to. What leads people to be sexually interested in members of their own  
sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes? The roots of human sexual orientation are poorly understood. However, most studies suggest that genetics and biology play  
a major role (Breedlove, [11.31]; DeBord et al., [11.51]; LeV ay , [1 1.111], [11.112]). A comprehensive review of the scientific literature suggests that, along with  
biological factors, certain environmental forces (particularly in the prenatal environment) may play some role in influencing sexual orientation (Bailey et al.,  
[1 1.13]). However, these environmental forces do not involve the social environment, and this study does not support the notion that sexual orientation can be  
taught or learned. Most importantly , the causes of homosexuality , biological or otherwise, should have no bearing on any individual's right to equality (Soh,  
[1 1.170]).  
Can you see how a biological foundation for sexual orientation challenges some of the most enduring myths and misconceptions about sexual orientation (see  
T able11.4)? Unfortunately , these false beliefs often contribute to sexual prejudice, which is a negative attitude directed toward an individual because of his or  
her sexual orientation. Many gay , lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people experience discrimination, as well as serious verbal and physical attacks, disrupted  
family and peer relationships, and high rates of anxiety , depression, and suicide (Elder , [1 1.58]; Ghabrial, [11.72]; Semlyen et al., [11.165]). Sadly , the risk of  
suicide may be particularly high among youths in the earliest stages of “coming out”—publicly revealing their gay sexual orientation (Dirkes et al., [11.54]).  
T able11.4Sexual Orientation Myths  
Marriage equalityIn 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the federal Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which  
defined marriage as a union between one man and one woman, unconstitutional. In 2015, in the case of Obergefellv .  
Hodges, the court went further and held that all states are required to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, and  
to recognize same-sex marriages validly performed in other jurisdictions. These decisions, along with other judicial  
and legislative action and changing societal views surrounding gay marriage, have lessened the misunderstandings  
and myths surrounding sexual orientation.  
Myth #1: Seduction theory: Gays and  
lesbians were seduced as children by  
adults of their own sex.  
Myth #2: “By default” theory: Gays  
and lesbians were unable to attract  
partners of the other sex or have had  
unhappy heterosexual experiences.  
Myth #3: Poor parenting theory: Sons  
become gay because of domineering  
mothers and weak fathers. Daughters  
become lesbians because their  
mothers were weak or absent or their  
fathers were their primary role model.  
Myth #4: Modeling theory: Children  
raised by gay and lesbian parents  
usually end up adopting their parents'  
sexual orientation.  
Note that the term sexual pr ejudiceis now preferred over the older , outdated term homophobia. In part, that's because homophobiaimplies an individual  
pathology , whereas sexual pr ejudicereflects the fact that, like all forms of prejudice, this type is socially constructed. Also note that a new acronym, LGBTQ, is  
sometimes used today to refer to people who identify themselves as lesbian, gay , bisexual, transgender , or queer/questioning. Although these terms might vary  
and change over time, the general rule when referring to any group of people is to be respectful and use the term that the group or individual prefers.  
I learned compassion fr om being discriminated against. Everything bad that's ever happened to me has taught me compassion.  
—Ellen DeGeneres  
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Retrieval Practice 1 1.3 Sexual Behavior  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide  
immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
In this text's diving-board analogy for the sexual response cycle, climbing up the ladder is analogous to the ________phase.  
a. excitement  
b. plateau  
c. orgasm  
d. resolution  
2\.   
The ________occurs after the orgasm phase and before the resolution phase of the sexual response cycle.  
a. spermarche  
b. woman's refractory period  
c. man's refractory period  
d. sex flush  
3\.   
Orgasm refers to ________.  
a. the final phase of the sexual response cycle  
b. the male refractory period  
c. a highly intense and pleasurable release of tension  
d. the peak of the excitement phase  
4\.   
Which is true of research on the causes of sexual orientation?  
a. It has helped overcome many misconceptions and myths.  
b. It provides evidence of a biological foundation.  
c. It is inconclusive.  
d. All of these options are true.  
5\.   
Briefly explain how sexual prejudice differs from homophobia.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and chapters  
within this text.  
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), you'll discover the four most common sources of prejudice—learning, limited resources, displaced aggression, and mental  
shortcuts. Briefly discuss how each of these sources might explain sexual prejudice.  
.  
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1 1.4 Sex Problems  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major problems in sexuality .  
•Describethe paraphilic disorders, including fetishism and exhibitionism, and their treatment.  
•Explainhow biological, psychological, and social factors influence sexual dysfunction.  
•Discussthe major treatments for sexual dysfunctions.  
•Identifythe major issues related to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and the special problem of AIDS.  
When we are functioning well sexually, we generally take this part of our lives for granted. But what happens when things don't go  
smoothly? Why are some people sexually aroused by exposure to objects or situations that are potentially self-destructive or that victimize  
others? Why does normal sexual functioning stop for some people and never begin for others? What are the major diseases that can be  
spread through sexual behavior? W e will explore these questions in the following section.  
Paraphilic Disorders  
People obviously have differing preferences for particular types of sexual activities. Some may engage in “kinky” or unusual sexual  
behavior, such as sex in socially unacceptable situations or with unusual stimuli, whereas others may participate in sexual violence or  
pedophilia (Balon, [11.15]; Merrick, [11.130]). Unusual sexual practices between two consenting adults are generally not a problem,  
unless the practices are potentially harmful or cause personal distress. In such cases, they may be classified as a paraphilic disorder—a  
group of psychosexual disorders involving disturbing and repetitive sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors that cause distress or impairment  
to the person and/or harm or risk of harm to others (American Psychiatric Association, [11.9]). Let's examine two of the most common  
paraphilias—fetishistic disor derand exhibitionistic disorder.  
Fetishistic Disorder  
In fetishistic disor der, the individual uses inanimate objects or unusual parts of the human body to achieve sexual arousal and satisfaction  
(American Psychiatric Association, [11.9]; Trail, [1 1.182]). Someone with a fetish might become aroused by seeing and touching silky  
material or by touching or smelling someone's shoe or foot. Or the person may simply find a particular object or body part appealing and  
arousing. In contrast to this type of fetishism, individuals with a clinical fetishistic disorder experience significant distress and/or  
impairment of their sexual, social, and other key areas of functioning. For example, they may find it impossible to become aroused or  
achieve orgasm when the preferred fetish object or body part is unavailable.  
Exhibitionistic Disorder  
Exhibitionistic disorder, often called “indecent exposure,” involves recurrent and intense sexual arousal from fantasies, urges, or behaviors  
associated with exposing the genitals to unsuspecting and nonconsenting observers (American Psychiatric Association, [11.9]). This  
exhibitionistic (“flashing”) behavior sometimes includes masturbating or performing sexual acts in a public location. A key aspect of the  
arousal is the surprise experienced by the victim. The exhibitionist generally does not desire any sexual contact with that person. People  
who have this paraphilia may actually engage in exhibitionism or may have recurring, obsessive sexual fantasies about doing so.  
Explaining and Treating Paraphilic Disorders  
As you'll discover in Chapter 14, the precise cause of psychological disorders is often difficult to determine, in part because numerous  
biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors may interact and contribute to such disorders (Balon, [11.15]; Kingston, [11.96];  
Saadat, [11.155]). When looking for the causes of paraphilias, some researchers emphasize the importance of biological factors, such as  
traumatic brain injury (TBI), hormones, and alcohol abuse. Those who take the psychoanalytic perspective, in contrast, believe that  
paraphilias represent a return to a sexual habit or behavior from childhood.  
The learning, or behaviorist, perspective describes paraphilias as a result of conditioning. In this view, particular sexual habits and  
paraphilias are learned from observing other people or from receiving reinforcement or reward for engaging in them. A person who  
engages in exhibitionistic behavior, for example, may experience increased arousal from anxiety about being caught engaging in such  
behavior, which can be quite rewarding.  
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Regardless of the cause, treatments are clearly needed to help people with such disorders find healthier and more positive outlets for their  
sexual pleasures. For example, some individuals have difficulty forming relationships with others, and group therapy can help build their  
social skills. Therapy also encourages them to empathize with their victims and take responsibility for their actions.  
Paraphilias also can be treated using aversion therapy , which focuses on replacing the positive associations between sexual pleasure and a  
particular object or behavior with negative ones (see Chapters 6 and 15). During this form of therapy, the person might be told to imagine  
a particularly arousing scene (such as the fetish object and/or exhibitionism). Then the person would be asked to immediately visualize a  
negative outcome, such as getting arrested or seriously injured. After creating new negative associations with the fetish object or behavior  
to replace the previously positive ones, the therapist can work on creating healthier associations.  
Common Sexual Difficulties  
In contrast to paraphilic disorders, many sexual problems involve common, everyday difficulties. These problems come under the official  
label sexual dysfunction, or difficulty in sexual functioning (T able11.5). In this section, we discuss how biology , psychology , and social  
forces, as represented in the biopsychosocial model, all contribute to sexual difficulties.  
T able11.5Common Male and Female Sexual Dysfunctions  
Male Female Both Male and Female  
Disorder Causes Disorder Causes Disorder Causes  
Erectile  
disorder  
*  
Marked  
difficulty in  
obtaining or  
maintaining an  
er ection during  
sexual activity  
or until its  
completion;  
marked  
decrease in  
er ectile rigidity  
•Lifelong  
(present  
since  
beginning of  
sexual  
activity) or  
acquired  
(began after  
a period of  
relatively  
normal  
sexual  
functioning)  
*Must be  
experienced on  
almost all or all  
occasions of  
sexual activity  
(approximately  
75% to 100%)  
Physical:  
Chronic  
illness,  
diabetes,  
circulatory  
conditions,  
heart disease,  
drugs, fatigue,  
alcohol,  
hormones,  
inappropriate  
or inadequate  
stimulation  
Psychological:  
Performance  
anxiety ,  
difficulty  
expressing  
desires, not  
wanting to  
have sex, peer  
pressure,  
antisexual  
education or  
upbringing  
Female  
orgasmic  
disorder  
Marked delay,  
infr equency , or  
absence of  
orgasm;  
markedly  
r educed  
intensity of  
orgasmic  
sensations  
•Generalized  
(not limited  
to certain  
types of  
stimulation,  
situations, or  
partners), or  
situational  
(only occurs  
with certain  
types of  
stimulation,  
situations or  
partners)  
Physical:  
Chronic  
illness,  
diabetes,  
drugs, fatigue,  
alcohol,  
hormones,  
pelvic  
disorders,  
inappropriate  
or inadequate  
stimulation  
Psychological:  
Guilt, fear of  
discovery ,  
hurried  
experiences,  
difficulty  
expressing  
desires, severe  
relationship  
distress,  
antisexual  
education or  
upbringing  
Female sexual  
interest/arousal  
disorder , male  
hypoactive sexual  
desire disorder  
A voids sexual relations  
due to disinterest  
Physical:  
Hormones, drugs, alcohol, chronic illness  
Psychological:  
Antisexual education or upbringing, depression,  
anxiety , sexual trauma, relationship problems  
Primarily psychological:  
Antisexual education or upbringing, sex trauma,  
partner pressure, gender identity confusion  
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Male Female Both Male and Female  
Disorder Causes Disorder Causes Disorder Causes  
Premature  
(early)  
ejaculation  
Persistent or  
r ecurr ent  
pattern of  
ejaculation  
during  
partnered  
sexual activity  
within  
approximately  
one minute  
following  
vaginal  
penetration and  
before the  
individual  
wishes it  
•Generalized  
(not limited  
to certain  
types of  
stimulations,  
or partners)  
or  
situational  
(only occurs  
with certain  
types of  
stimulation,  
situations, or  
partners)  
Primarily  
psychological:  
Guilt, fear of  
discovery ,  
hurried  
experiences,  
learning to  
ejaculate as  
quickly as  
possible  
V aginismus  
Involuntary  
vaginal spasms  
making penile  
insertion  
impossible or  
difficult and  
painful  
Primarily  
psychological:  
Inadequate  
lubrication,  
learned  
association of  
pain or fear  
with  
intercourse,  
antisexual  
education or  
upbringing  
Substance/medicationinduced sexual  
dysfunction  
Physical:  
Substance intoxication or withdrawal from drugs  
(e.g., alcohol, cocaine) or after exposure to  
medication  
Although sex therapists typically divide sexual  
dysfunction into “male, “female,” or “both,”  
problems should never be considered “his” or  
“hers.” Couples are almost always encouraged to  
work together to find solutions.  
*  
For more information, check www .goaskalice.columbia.edu/Cat6.html.  
Sources:Based on American Psychiatric Association, [11.9]; Balon, [11.14]; Carroll, [11.38]; Crooks & Baur, [1 1.46]; Strassberg et al.,  
[1 1.173].  
Biological Factors  
Although many people may consider it unromantic, a large part of sexual arousal and behavior is clearly the result of biological processes  
(Crooks & Baur , [1 1.46]; Segarra-Echebarría et al., [11.164]; Shackelford & Hansen, [11.166]). Erectile dysfunction, the inability to get or  
maintain an erection firm enough for intercourse, and orgasmic dysfunction, the inability to respond to sexual stimulation to the point of  
orgasm, often reflect lifestyle factors like cigarette smoking. They are also related to medical conditions such as diabetes, alcoholism,  
circulatory problems, and reactions to certain prescription and nonprescription drugs. Furthermore, many people fail to recognize that  
drinking alcohol, even in moderate doses, can interfere with sexual functioning. Sexual responsiveness is also affected by stress, illness,  
and simple fatigue. In addition, hormones (especially testosterone) have a clear effect on sexual desire in both men and women, though  
their precise role is not well understood.  
Sexual arousal for both men and women is partially reflexive and somewhat analogous to simple reflexes (see Chapter 2). Just as a puff of  
air produces an automatic closing of the eye, certain stimuli, such as stroking of the genitals, can lead to automatic arousal in both men  
and women. In response to such stimuli, nerve impulses from the receptor site travel to the spinal cord. The spinal cord then responds by  
sending messages to target organs or glands. Normally , the blood flow into organs and tissues through the arteries is balanced by an equal  
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outflow through the veins. During sexual arousal, however, the arteries dilate beyond the capacity of the veins to carry the blood away .  
This results in erection of the penis in men and an engorged clitoris and surrounding tissue in women.  
As we've just seen, the human body is biologically prepared to become aroused and respond to erotic stimulation. Generally, if a man or  
woman stays in arousal long enough, an orgasm will occur . If this is so automatic, why do some people have difficulty getting aroused?  
Unlike the case in simple reflexes such as the eye blink, psychological factors, such as negative thoughts or high emotional states, may  
block sexual arousal. Recall from Chapter 2 that the autonomic nervous system (ANS)is intricately linked to emotional and sexual  
responses. It is composed of two subsystems: the sympathetic, which prepares the body for “fight-flight-freeze,” and the parasympathetic,  
which maintains bodily processes at a steady, even balance. The parasympatheticbranch is dominant during initial sexual excitement and  
throughout the plateau phase. The sympatheticbranch dominates during ejaculation and orgasm.  
Psychological Influences  
Do you see why the parasympathetic branch must be in control during arousal? The person needs to be relaxed enough to allow blood to  
flow to the genital area. Anxieties associated with certain sexual experiences, such as fear of pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections,  
may cause sympathetic dominance, which in turn blocks sexual arousal. Many individuals discover that they need locked doors,  
committed relationships, and reliable birth control to fully enjoy sexual relations.  
Another psychological block to sexual arousal is performance anxiety, the fear of being judged in connection with sexual activity (see the  
cartoon). Men commonly experience problems with erections or sufficient arousal (especially after drinking alcohol), and both men and  
women wonder whether their “performance” will satisfy their partner. Both partners also frequently worry about their attractiveness and  
their ability to reach orgasm. Do you see how these performance fears can lead to sexual problems? Once again, increased anxiety causes  
the sympathetic nervous system to dominate, which blocks blood flow to the genitals.  
Many psychological factors affect our sexual functioning (Clarke et al., [11.42]; Gosselin, [11.75]; Rajkumar & Kumaran, [11.148]).  
Consider one more example. People who are having difficulty becoming pregnant and are using fertility treatments such as in vitro  
fertilization may experience lower levels of sexual desire and pleasure (Daniluk et al., [11.48]; Smith et al., [11.168]). And on a related  
note, research has recently confirmed what was long suspected—women who are highly stressed are less likely to conceive (Akhter et al.,  
[1 1.2]). In other words, psychological factors, such as anxiety about not becoming pregnant or high levels of stress, may interfere not only  
with the enjoyment of sex but also with the ability to become pregnant.  
Social and Cultural Factors  
There are numerous social and cultural factors that provide explicit sexual scriptsabout what to do and when, where, how , and with whom  
we should do it (Gagnon, [11.70]; Leiting & Y eater , [1 1.109]; Wright & Bae, [1 1.192]). During the 1950s, societal messages said the  
“best” sex was at night, in a darkened room, only between a man and a woman, with the man on top and the woman on bottom. Today , the  
messages are bolder and more varied, partly because of media portrayals. Compare the sexual scripts portrayed in Figure11.7.  
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Figure 11.7 Changing sexual scriptsT elevision and  
movies in the 1950s and 1960s allowed only married  
couples to be shown in a bedroom setting (and only in  
long pajamas and separate twin-size beds). Contrast this  
with modern times, where very young, unmarried  
couples are commonly portrayed in one bed, scantily  
dressed or nude, and sometimes even engaging in  
various stages of intercourse.  
Sexual scripts may be less rigid today than they once were, but a major difficulty remains. Many sexual behaviors do not fit society's  
scripts and expectations, and we all unconsciously internalize societal messages without recognizing that they affect our values and  
behaviors. A recent study of 7th grade students found that those who believed that their peers were having sex were 2.5 times more likely  
themselves to have sex by 9th grade. Can you see how this increase in sexual behavior demonstrates the power of perceived peer norms  
and sexual scripts in influencing behavior (Johnson-Baker et al., [11.90])?  
Another change is the increasing prevalence of “hooking up” among high school and college students. Not so recently, dating was the  
major route to sexual interactions. Following predictable scripts, the man was expected to initiate the first date, organize it, and initiate  
sexual activity , whereas the woman waited to be asked out and accepted or rejected the man's sexual overtures.  
T oday , more casual, no-strings-attached, hooking-up relationships have at least partially replaced the more traditional romantic dating  
relationships (Allison, [1 1.4]; Olmstead et al., [11.139]; Prestage et al., [11.147]). Some research, however, suggests the “hookup” culture  
on college campuses has been overstated. For example, one study of first-year college women found that 56% of the women reported  
having sex with a romantic partner, whereas only 40% reported having sex in the context of a hookup (Fielder et al., 2012).  
Sexual behaviors are also related to the double standard, which tends to encourage male sexuality and discourage female sexuality .  
Despite many changes in recent years, men are still generally encouraged to explore their sexuality and bring a certain level of sexual  
knowledge into relationships. In contrast, women are generally expected to permit or stop male advances and to refrain from sexual  
activity until married—or at least “in love.” For example, researchers found that when male adolescents reported “having sex,” they  
gained in peer acceptance, whereas female adolescents reporting the same behavior experienced decreases in peer acceptance (Kreager et  
al., [1 1.100]). However, these gender differences reversed when it came to “making out.” In this case, male adolescents' peer acceptance  
declined, while the female adolescents' acceptance increased.  
Y ou can see how traditional sexual scripts and the double standard might affect our sexual behaviors and attitudes, but what about political  
beliefs? See the following Research Challenge to explore this question.  
Research Challenge Does Political Affiliation Reflect Sexual Behavior?  
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Historically , the general American view has been that liberals typically believe the government's major function is to ensure equal  
opportunity and equality for all, whereas conservatives believe that government should focus on national defense and the freedom to  
pursue individual goals. But little was known about how each group's political values aligned with their sexual behaviors and attitudes—  
until now .  
Using a web-based sampling technique, researchers directly asked American participants about their individual sexual practices and their  
political preferences (Hatemi et al., [11.80]). As might be expected, those with more conservative attitudes, ideologies, and partisan  
leanings tended to report engaging in more traditional sexual behaviors, such as kissing and missionary position (man on top) sex. In  
contrast, those who are more liberal politically reported more masturbation and more adventurous sex, such as using sex toys. They also  
engage in “liberal sex,” such as having sex with someone they met on the same day , and have more sexual partners in their lifetime.  
Interestingly , those with more conservative orientations tend to report being more satisfied with their sex life.  
What do you think? Does this fit with what you know about liberals and conservatives? Why do you think conservatives are more satisfied  
with their sex life? Can you predict the problems that might arise in a sexual union between two people who held strong and opposite  
political views?  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Hatemi et al., [11.80]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive resear ch,is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , or/and archival research?  
•corr elational resear ch,is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental resear ch,label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned  
to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks  
and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you  
become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Sex Therapy  
People experiencing sex problems often benefit from therapy . How do therapists work with sex problems? Clinicians usually begin with  
interviews and examinations to determine whether the problem is biological, psychological, or, more likely , a combination of both  
(Atwood, [1 1.12]; McAnulty & Milling, [11.126]; T olman et al., [11.180]).  
As mentioned earlier, biological causes of sexual dysfunction include medical conditions such as diabetes and heart disease, medications  
such as antidepressants, and drugs such as alcohol and tobacco—see T able11.6. In fact, many who are addicted to drugs or alcohol  
experience sexual problems even after they stop using these substances (Del Río et al., [11.53]; V allejo-Medina & Sierra, [11.184]).  
Erectile disorders are the problems most likely to have an organic component, and numerous drugs and other medical procedures have  
been developed to treat them.  
T able11.6Sexual Effects of Legal and Illegal Drugs  
Drug Effects  
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Drug Effects  
Alcohol  
Moderate to high doses inhibit arousal; chronic abuse causes damage to testes, ovaries, and the circulatory and  
nervous systems  
T obacco  
Decreases blood flow to the genitals, thereby reducing the frequency and duration of erections and vaginal  
lubrication  
Cocaine and  
amphetamines  
Moderate to high doses and chronic use result in inhibition of orgasm and decrease in erection and lubrication  
Barbiturates Moderate to high doses lead to decreased desire, erectile disorders, and delayed orgasm  
Sex therapists also emphasize psychological and social factors. Y ears ago, the major psychological treatment for sexual dysfunction was  
long-term psychoanalysis. This treatment was based on the assumption that sexual problems resulted from deep-seated conflicts that  
originated in childhood. During the 1950s and 1960s, behavior therapists proposed that sexual dysfunction was learned. (See Chapter 15  
for a more complete description of both psychoanalysis and behavior therapy .) It wasn't until the early 1970s and the publication of  
Masters and Johnson's Human Sexual Inadequacythat sex therapy gained national recognition. Because the model that Masters and  
Johnson developed is still a popular choice of many sex therapists, we will use it as our example of how psychological sex therapy is  
conducted.  
Masters and Johnson's Sex Therapy Program  
The approach developed by William Masters and V irginia Johnson (see photo) is founded on four major principles:  
Experiments in Sex  
William Masters and V irginia Johnson were the first researchers to use direct laboratory experimentation and observation to study human  
sexuality .  
1.Relationship focus Unlike forms of therapy that focus on the individual, Masters and Johnson's sex therapy focuses on the  
relationship between two people. T o counteract any blaming tendencies, each partner is considered fully involved in and affected by  
sexual problems. Both partners are taught positive communication and conflict resolution skills.  
2.Investigation of both biological and psychosocial factors Medication and many physical disorders can cause or aggravate sexual  
dysfunctions. Therefore, Masters and Johnson emphasize the importance of medical histories and exams. They also explore  
psychosocial factors, such as how the couple first learned about sex and their current attitudes, gender-role training, and sexual scripts.  
3.Emphasis on cognitive factors Recognizing that many problems result from performance anxiety and spectatoring—mentally  
watching and evaluating responses during sexual activities—therapists discourage couples from setting goals and judging sex in terms  
of success or failure.  
4.Specific behavioral techniques Couples are seen in an intensive two-week counseling program. They explore their sexual values and  
misconceptions and practice specific behavioral exercises. “Homework assignments” usually begin with a sensate focusexercise in  
which the partners take turns gently caressing each other and communicating what is pleasurable. There are no goals or performance  
demands. Later exercises and assignments are tailored to the couple's particular sex problem. For more suggestions for healthy  
sexuality , see the following T ry This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Tips for Healthy Sexuality  
Sex therapists generally recommend:  
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•Beginning sex education as early as possible. Children should be given positive feelings about their bodies and an opportunity to  
discuss sexuality in an open, honest fashion.  
•A voiding goal- or performance-oriented approaches. Therapists often remind clients that there really is no “right” way to have  
sex. When couples or individuals attempt to judge or evaluate their sexual lives or to live up to others' expectations, they risk  
making sex a job rather than a pleasure.  
•Communicating openly with your partner. Mind reading belongs onstage, not in the bedroom. Partners need to tell each other  
what feels good and what doesn't. Sexual problems should be openly discussed without blame, anger, or defensiveness. If the  
problem does not improve within a reasonable time, consider getting professional help.  
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs )  
As we've just seen, early sex education and open communication between partners are essential for full sexual functioning. They're also  
key to avoiding and controlling sexually transmitted infections (STIs), formerly called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), venereal  
disease (VD), or social diseases. STIs are infections that are generally passed from one person to another through vaginal, oral, or anal  
sex. There are more than 25 infectious organisms that can be transmitted through sexual activity .  
As you've undoubtedly heard, it's extremely important for sexually active people to get medical diagnosis and treatment for any suspicious  
symptoms and to inform their partners. If left untreated, many STIs can cause severe problems, including infertility, ectopic pregnancy ,  
cancer , and even death. Each year , of the millions of North Americans who contract one or more STIs, a substantial majority are under age  
35\. Also, as Figure11.8 shows, women are at much greater risk than men of contracting major STIs.  
Figure 11.8 Male–female differences in susceptibility to STIsThese percentages  
represent the relative chances of infection for men and women after a single act  
of intercourse with an infected partner .  
STIs such as genital warts and chlamydial infections have reached epidemic proportions. Y et AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency  
syndrome)has received the largest share of public attention. AIDS results from infection with the human immunodeficiency virus(HIV). A  
standard blood test can determine whether someone is HIV positive, which means he or she has been infected by HIV . Keep in mind that  
being infected is not the same as having AIDS. AIDS is the final stage of the HIV infection process.  
Note also that with the right medications, people can have a normal, or near-normal, life span with HIV or AIDS (Helleberg et al., [11.85];  
May et al., [11.125]; Naghavi et al., [11.137]). The key is early treatment with antiretroviral drugs. Nonetheless, there is no known cure for  
HIV in most cases, and AIDS remains a serious, potentially fatal health risk.  
Sadly , myths about AIDS are still widespread. Many people still believe AIDS can be transmitted through casual contact, such as  
sneezing, shaking hands, sharing drinking glasses or towels, kissing, or contact with sweat or tears. Some even mistakenly believe that  
you can contract HIV while donating blood. Others are mistrustful of gay people, because gay men were the first highly visible victims.  
All of these are falsebeliefs.  
HIV spreads only by direct contact with bodily fluids—primarily blood, semen, and vaginal secretions, but also occasionally through  
breast milk and nonsterile needles. Note that contrary to popular stereotypes, anyone can get HIV and AIDS, including men, women,  
children, and people who are gay or straight (Hall et al., [11.79]; Heeren et al., [11.83]; Malavé et al., [11.115]).  
At this point, we need to offset these depressing facts about STIs with some good news. Most STIs are readily cured in their early stages.  
See Figure11.9 for an overview of the signs and symptoms of the most common STIs. As you study this figure, remember that many  
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infected people are asymptomatic, meaning they lack obvious symptoms. Y ou can have one or more of the diseases without knowing it.  
And it is often impossible to tell whether a sexual partner is infectious. That's why the best strategy is prevention and regular testing (see  
the following T ry This Y ourself).  
Figure 11.9 Common sexually transmitted infections (STIs)Keep in mind that  
you may have an STI without having any of the danger signs listed here. If you  
have symptoms or concerns, see your doctor and follow all medical  
recommendations. This generally includes returning for a checkup to make sure  
you are no longer infected. If you would like more information, check  
www .niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/stdinfo.htm. For further , detailed information  
about STIs, visit www .safesex.org.Sources: Based on Crooks & Baur , 2016;  
King & Regan, 2015.  
Try This Y ourself Protecting Y ourself and Others from STIs  
The following “safer sex” suggestions are intended not to be moralistic but to help reduce your chances of contracting HIV/AIDS and  
other STIs:  
1.Remain abstinent or have sex with one mutually faithful, uninfected partner. Be selective about sexual partners and postpone  
physical intimacy until laboratory tests verify that you are both free of STIs.  
2.Don't share needles, syringes, or other drug equipment—and don't have sex with someone who does. If you must share, use bleach to  
clean and sterilize your needles and syringes. Also, if you're engaging in tattooing and/or body piercing, be sure the needles are  
sterilized.  
3.Don't have sex if you or your partner is impaired by alcohol or other drugs. The same is true for your friends: “Friends don't let  
friends drive (or have sex) when drunk (or drug impaired).” Sadly , one study found that almost 20% of college men have committed  
some kind of sexual assault, and 4% have committed rape (Mouilso & Calhoun, [11.133]). And other research shows that an estimated  
7% of women are raped while incapacitated due to the influence of alcohol or drugs during their first year at college (Carey et al.,  
[1 1.36]).  
4.Use condoms. Although condoms do not provide 100% protection, when used consistently and correctly, using them is still one of  
the very best ways to decrease your chances of contracting STIs, while simultaneously helping to prevent unwanted pregnancies.  
5.Educate yourself. Learn the signs and symptoms of STIs. If you have more than one sexual partner, experts recommend having  
regular medical exams (every three to six months), and if you think you might be infected, get help right away .  
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Retrieval Practice 1 1.4 Sex Problems  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Define paraphilic disorder.  
2\.   
________teach us “what to do, when, where, how , and with whom.”  
a. Sex surrogates  
b. Sexual scripts  
c. Sex manuals  
d. Sex therapists  
3\.   
The fear of being judged in connection with sexual activity is known as ________.  
a. decreased sexual desire  
b. sexual dysfunctions  
c. inhibited orgasm  
d. performance anxiety  
4\.   
All of the following are principles of Masters and Johnson's approach to sex therapy except ________.  
a. setting goals to improve sexual performance  
b. examining the relationship between the two people  
c. using medical histories and physical examinations  
d. exploring individual attitudes and sex education  
5\.   
Having AIDS generally refers to being infected with a virus that attacks the ________.  
a. central nervous system  
b. peripheral nervous system  
c. immune system  
d. mucous membranes  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 6 (Learning), we discussed how operant conditioning and observational learning can shape behavior. How do these two  
processes contribute to our understanding of sexual scripts and the double standard for men and women?  
.  
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1 1.5 Sex and Modern Life  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own  
words.  
Summarize the major issues of sex and modern life.  
•Discussthe risks and methods of prevention for sexual victimization, including child sexual abuse and rape.  
•Describewhy and how gender differences, conflict, and assertiveness are key elements of sexual  
communication.  
Sexuality can be a source of vitality and tender bonding. But when sexual activity becomes a forcible act against  
the wishes of another person, it can be very traumatizing. In this section, we look at the dark side of human  
sexuality—sexual victimization. Then, we address perhaps the most valuable topic of all—sexual communication.  
Sexual V ictimization  
Any sexual activity that includes lack of consent, or the coercion, exploitation, or assault of another, is a serious  
problem. Although we often think about sexual violence as caused by a stranger, in most cases it is committed by  
someone known to the victim, such as a friend, neighbor, or family member . Both men and women can experience  
sexual victimization. In this section we examine two types of sexual violence: child sexual abuseand rape.  
Child Sexual Abuse (CSA )  
A substantial number of children and adolescents are sexually abusedby adults or other adolescents. Child sexual  
abuse (CSA), also known as child molestationor pedophilia, refers to a sexual act with a child that is intended to  
provide sexual gratification for the perpetrator. It can refer to a number of different behaviors, including touching a  
child's genitals, masturbating in front of a child, or engaging in digital penetration, oral-genital stimulation, or  
vaginal or anal intercourse. It can also occur in the absence of any physical contact, such as when an abuser  
watches a child undress or exposes their genitals to a child. Soliciting a child to engage in acts for the sexual  
gratification of others or viewing or disseminating child pornography are also considered child sex abuse  
(American Psychiatric Association, [11.9]; Crosson-T ower, [1 1.47]; Delmonico & Griffin, [1 1.52]). See Figure  
11.10.  
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Figure 11.10 “Stranger  
danger”? The reality of  
child sex abusersDid  
you know that up to  
30% of CSA is  
committed by family  
members and that up  
to 60% is committed  
by acquaintances and  
people the family  
trusts (Deblinger et al.,  
[1 1.50]; Finkelhor,  
[1 1.64]; Whealin &  
Barnett, [11.187])?  
Ironically , most people  
believe strangers are  
the major perpetrators  
of sexual abuse, which  
leaves parents and the  
public less alert to the  
real dangers from  
relatives, coaches, and  
even trusted religious  
leaders! As shown in  
this photo, the  
systemic child abuse  
practiced by numerous  
Roman Catholic  
priests was highlighted  
in the Academy  
A ward-winning 2015  
film Spotlight.  
Not surprisingly , children who are sexually abused may experience long-term psychological, physical, and  
behavioral problems. Common reactions include depression, anxiety , guilt, fear , sexual dysfunction, withdrawal,  
acting out, and problems with sleeping, eating, or school performance. In addition, sexually abused children may  
show inappropriate knowledge of, or interest in, sexual activity . As adults, they're also at increased risk of sexual  
revictimization, as well as depression, anxiety , insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), problems with  
alcohol and drugs, aggressive and criminal behaviors, and difficulty in adult sexual relationships (Nguyen et al.,  
2017; T eicher & Samson, [11.177]; W aldron et al., [11.185]).  
The effects of CSA vary according to a number of factors, but in general, the longer the abuse occurred, the closer  
the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim, and the more violent the assault, the greater the negative  
effects (Carroll, [1 1.38]; Karakurt & Silver, [1 1.92]; Many et al., [11.116]). The consequences also vary in part  
depending on whether and how quickly a child reports the abuse. Children who confide shortly after the abuse in  
an adult who believes them generally experience less trauma than children who do not disclose the offense. Sadly ,  
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many children wait years to tell someone about what occurred. In fact, one study found that half of all victims wait  
as long as five years before telling someone, and 25% never disclose the abuse (Hébert et al., [11.82]).  
Why would a child not reveal this type of abuse immediately? Adult sexual predators typically lie and distort their  
abusive sexual behaviors as a way of manipulating and confusing the intended child victim. Even before the abuse  
begins, most abusers engage in a “seduction stage” in which they typically “groom” their victims by gradually and  
methodically building trust with the child and the adults who surround him or her. During the abuse, the predator  
then uses power , fear , isolation, and verbal threats (“no one will believe you”) and/or physical threats (“I'll kill you  
and/or your family”) to discourage the child from revealing the abuse. Thus, the child may stay silent, deny the  
abuse, misremember, or even forcibly forget in order to protect himself or herself or a loved one (Belli, 2013;  
Bennett & O'Donohue, [11.24]; McNally & Robinaugh, [11.128]).  
The good news is that a cross-cultural meta-analysis (which combined results from 24 studies) found that schoolbased programs teaching children about sexual abuse leads to more disclosure (W alsh et al., [11.186]).  
Furthermore, many victims of this type of abuse can and do recover to have fulfilling romantic and sexual  
relationships. This is not to say that CSA isn't a very serious crime, and our top priority must be to prevent it. The  
following general tips are drawn from the work of numerous specialists. For more information, contact the  
National Children's Alliance (www.nca-online.org) or the National Child Abuse hotline (1-800-4-A-Child).  
1.Education Adults should learn the risks and facts about child sexual abuse. Starting in early childhood,  
present this information to both male and female children in concrete terms, using age-appropriate language.  
During these prevention discussions, be sure to include the positive aspects of loving touch and sexuality,  
which the child will discover as an adult.  
2.Reduce the risk Recognizing that abusers are most often family members, friends, or trusted people in  
positions of authority , create and lobby for open-door policies and the reduction or elimination of private, oneadult/one-child situations.  
3.Child empowerment T each children to know the difference between “good touch” and “bad touch” and to  
trust their own feelings when they think something is wrong. Remind them that they have rights. They can say  
“no” to any adult who asks them to participate in any activity or bodily contact that makes them feel  
uncomfortable. Also, instruct children that no matter what anyone tells them, “body secrets” are not okay, and  
reassure them that they will not get in trouble by reporting the secret. If you suspect abuse, or if a child reports  
it, stay calm, protect the child from further contact with the abuser, and report it to the police.  
Rape  
The legal definition of rapevaries from state to state, but it is generally defined as unlawfully engaging in oral,  
anal, or vaginal penetration with a person through force or threat of force and without consent or with a person  
incapable of giving consent (due to age or physical or mental incapacity). As clear-cut as this definition seems,  
many people misunderstand what constitutes rape. To test your own knowledge, see the following Try This  
Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself True or False?  
________1.   
Rape usually occurs between strangers.  
________2.   
A man cannot be raped by a woman.  
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________3.   
Rape is a crime of passion.  
________4.   
W omen secretly want to be raped.  
________5.   
Male sexuality is biologically overpowering and beyond control.  
________6.   
Rape is usually violent.  
________7.   
There are many false reports of rape.  
________8.   
Most people report rape or sexual assault to the police.  
________9.   
If a person didn't fight back, he or she wasn't really raped.  
________10.   
W omen and girls sometimes play hard to get and say “no” when they really mean “yes.”  
All these statements are false. But popular culture and media often support these myths, and a large number of men  
and women believe them (Carroll, [11.38]; Garland et al., [11.71]; Schwartz & Kempner, [1 1.163]). Using your  
critical thinking skills, can you explain how gender role conditioning, media portrayals, and lack of general  
information help perpetuate these myths?  
Without consent, it's rape!  
In March 2013, T rent Mays, age 17, and Ma'lik Richmond, age 16, were found guilty of sexually assaulting a 16-year-old female classmate who was intoxicated and thus unable to give legal consent. Sadly , this type of sexual  
assault occurs far too often in both high schools and colleges.  
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As with CSA, only around 10% of rapes are committed by strangers. In the United States alone, more than 2  
million women are raped each year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, [11.40]). Nationwide surveys  
reveal that 8% of high school students (11.8% of female students and 4.5% of male students) report having been  
forced to have sex, as do 20% to 25% of college women. Considering that most rapes are never reported to the  
police, you can see why the official numbers most likely underestimate the true prevalence of such violence.  
Sadly , the impact of rape is often long lasting and can include physical, psychological, and social consequences.  
V ictims may experience chronic pain, headaches and migraines, back pain, and gynecological and gastrointestinal  
problems. Equally serious psychological and social consequences include lasting fear, anxiety , depression, guilt,  
distrust of others, and strained relationships with family members, friends, and romantic partners. Some victims  
develop PTSD and experience painful flashbacks in which they mentally reexperience the trauma of the attack.  
Some respond by engaging in unhealthy behaviors, including taking drugs, smoking cigarettes, vomiting,  
overeating, and even attempting suicide (Çelikel et al., [11.39]; Crooks & Baur, [1 1.46]; Zinik & Padilla, [11.194]).  
Recovering from sexual violence takes time. Victims of rape may go through an initial period of coping with the  
immediate physical and emotional trauma, followed by a lengthy “reorganization” phase in which they try to get  
back to their normal life. They often benefit from group therapy with other survivors. When PTSD has developed,  
cognitive therapy or treatment with antidepressants may be useful. The victim's family, friends, and sexual partners  
also need support, education, and counseling to deal with their own feelings, as well as guidance in dealing  
appropriately with the victim.  
Preventing rape is obviously a crucial goal, and the best general strategies are to:  
•Provide education about healthy sexuality and safe dating relationships.  
•Help parents identify violent attitudes and behaviors in their children.  
•Create and enforce policies in school and work environments that address sexual violence and harassment.  
•Develop mass media messages—on television, on the Internet, and in newspapers and magazines—that  
promote violence-free relationships and norms.  
•Increase public awareness of sexual violence and the importance of bystanders stepping in to prevent an  
assault.  
For more information, contact the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (www.rainn.org) or the National Sexual  
Violence Against W omen Prevention Research Center (www .musc.edu/vawprevention).  
Sexual Communication  
Men and women, women and men. It will never work.  
—Erica Jong (American Author , Poet, T eacher)  
As we've just seen, communication can help to reduce sexual victimization. It's also the foundation for finding and  
maintaining a healthy sexual relationship. W e need to learn how to clearly communicate with words, as well as  
through facial expressions, eye contact, and body language (e.g., Adams & Nelson, [11.1]; Hwang & Matsumoto,  
[1 1.87]). In this section, we focus on three key topics and potential problems with communication: male/female  
differences, managing conflict, and saying “no.”  
Male/Female Differences in Communication  
Have you heard that men and women communicate so differently that they seem to be from two separate cultures  
or planets—as in the title of the popular book Men Are from Mars, W omen Are from V enus?This idea is appealing  
because of popular stereotypes and our own occasional difficulties communicating “across genders.” However,  
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research shows that these differences are small and not characteristic of all men and women or of all mixed-gender  
conversations (Carothers & Reis, [11.37]; Hyde, [11.88]; Martey et al., [11.119]). Still, they may help explain and  
prevent some communication misunderstandings.  
T ake, for example, the finding that in general men use speech to convey information, exert control, preserve  
independence, and enhance their status. In contrast, women more often use speech to achieve and share intimacy ,  
promote closeness, and maintain relationships (T able11.7). If men more often see conversations as a contest they  
must “win” and women use language as a way to “bond with others,” it's easy to see why the two sexes might have  
certain communication problems. Do you see how a woman who sees language as a way to maintain relationships  
might call her partner at work to ask how his day is going or when he will be home? And how, in turn, the man  
might interpret her call as a challenge to his freedom and resist what he perceives as controlling behavior? To make  
matters worse, at home that night, the same man may feel like relaxing. If he doesn't have information to convey or  
anyone to defend against, he sees little reason to talk. In comparison, the woman may have spent her day having  
few opportunities to build closeness through language, and she looks forward to a quiet dinner and “relationship  
talk” with her mate.  
T able11.7Communication Differences Between the Genders  
In General, Men T end to In General, W omen T end to  
Use speech to convey  
information, exert control,  
preserve independence, and  
enhance their status.  
Use speech to achieve and  
share intimacy , promote  
closeness, and maintain  
relationships.  
What's wrong with this communication?  
Can you use information from this table to identify  
possible gender-related explanations?  
T alk more than women, interrupt  
women more than women  
interrupt men, and interrupt  
women more often than they  
interrupt other men.  
T alk more than men when  
they have more power in a  
relationship.  
Be more directive and assertive  
(“I want to get there by noon”).  
Be more indirect and  
tentative, using hedges  
(“kind of”) and disclaimers  
(“I'm not sure what time we  
should get there”).  
T alk more about politics, sports,  
and careers when they're in samegender pairs.  
T alk more about feelings and  
relationships when they're in  
same-gender pairs.  
Remain calm and problem  
oriented during conflict and seek  
compromise solutions to  
problems.  
Become more sensitive to the feelings of others during conflict, more easily  
express both positive and negative emotions, and send double messages (such as  
smiling while making a critical comment).  
Prefer spoken communication. Prefer written communication.  
Prefer to work out their problems  
by themselves.  
Prefer to talk out solutions with another person.  
Make critical comments on the  
work of a colleague.  
Compliment the work of a colleague.  
Be less sensitive to reading and  
sending nonverbal messages.  
Be better at reading and sending nonverbal messages.  
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In General, Men T end to In General, W omen T end to  
Sources:Brannon, [11.29]; Crooks & Baur, [1 1.46]; Levant & W ong, [11.110]; Matlin, [11.123]; T annen, [1 1.174],  
[1 1.175], [11.176]; W ood & Fixmer-Oralz, [1 1.190].  
Obviously , this scenario exaggerates gender differences and overlooks individual situations. But we use this  
extreme example to demonstrate why the two sexes are sometimes at cross-purposes when they talk (see cartoon).  
Researcher Deborah T annen ([11.174], [11.175], [11.176]) believes that boys and girls learn different styles of  
communication from early childhood and that these styles sometimes carry over into most of their adult social  
interactions. In her book Y ou Just Don't Understand, T annen ([11.174]) says that the first steps in improving  
communication between men and women are accepting that there are some differences in gender communication  
styles, realizing it is not a matter of one style being right or wrong, and then working to understand the other  
gender's occasionally differing styles.  
Since the publication of T annen's research, a large number of investigations have looked at gender differences in  
communication. These studies have verified that some differences do exist, but they are relatively small. Moreover,  
they may reflect differences in status and power more than gender (Brannon, [11.29]; Leaper, [1 1.107]; McGlone  
& Pfiester, [1 1.127]). This is good news. Given that communication is essential for healthy sexuality, as well as in  
our professional and personal lives, men and women can use this information to better understand one another and  
work around their small, but sometimes meaningful, gender differences.  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success Are Y our Conflicts Constructive or  
Destructive?  
One of the most essential, and most difficult, areas of communication is conflict management, and the way we  
handle it is a major predictor of relationship satisfaction and longevity. It's also an inevitable part of life. By  
understanding it and identifying your own conflict patterns, you can use it as an opportunity to improve and  
solidify your relationships.  
Carol Rusbult and her colleagues describe four of the most common types of responses that people typically use in  
handling conflict—voice, loyalty , neglect,and exit(Drigotas et al., [1 1.55]; Rusbult & Zembrodt, [11.153]; Rusbult  
et al., [11.154]).  
The first, and generally seen as the most constructive, strategy is voice, which means talking things over to try to  
resolve the conflict. When done properly , it helps maintain and affirm the relationship because it involves direct  
problem solving and creative “win-win” solutions. Thus, if your partner seems to be avoiding your sexual  
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advances, you could discuss how his or her resistance makes you feel and how the problem could be solved.  
(Perhaps he or she is exhausted from work, and you could renegotiate the work load at home.)  
Loyaltyis defined as remaining committed to the relationship and simply waiting patiently for things to get better.  
It is characterized by quiet forgiveness, acceptance, and accommodation. Loyalty sounds as if it could be a good  
strategy , but it's less often associated with favorable consequences for conflict management, possibly because it is a  
less visible and more indirect strategy (Cahn, [11.35]; Kammrath & Dweck, [11.91]).  
The other two conflict strategies are clearly destructive. Neglect, giving up on the relationship and withdrawing  
from it emotionally , and exit, leaving or threatening to leave the relationship, are far too common and should be  
avoided if you want to build or maintain a healthy relationship. Not surprisingly , people who have high relationship  
investment and satisfaction are more likely to use a constructive strategy for resolving conflicts (see the following  
Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself How Do Y ou Handle Conflict?  
Rate how likely you would be to use each strategy for handling conflict in a romantic relationship on a scale of 1 to  
5 (1 meaning “I would definitely not do this” and 5 meaning “I would definitely do this”).  
1.I would end the relationship.  
2.I would tell my partner to leave.  
3.I would talk to my partner about what was bothering me.  
4.I would suggest things that I thought would help us.  
5.I would hope that if I just hung in there, things would get better .  
6.I would wait patiently .  
7.I guess I would just sort of let things fall apart.  
8.I would get angry and wouldn't talk at all.  
What were your highest and lowest scores? Items 1 and 2 measure exit, items 3 and 4 measure voice, items 5 and 6  
measure loyalty, and items 7 and 8 measure neglect (Rusbult et al., [11.154]).  
Another researcher, John Gottman, has conducted extensive research on relationship conflict (Gottman, [11.76];  
Gottman & Silver, [1 1.77]). Using a variety of measures (physiological, nonverbal, verbal, and questionnaire) to  
assess and follow large samples of couples over long periods of time, his research has revealed four styles of  
conflict that are particularly destructive:  
•Criticism—complaining about some features of the relationship.  
•Contempt—acting as if sickened or repulsed by the partner .  
•Defensiveness—protecting the self.  
•Stonewalling—emotionally withdrawing and refusing to participate in conversation.  
All these strategies can lead to increased isolation and withdrawal. In fact, Gottman calls these styles of conflict the  
“Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse,” meaning that the end of a relationship, the apocalypse, will be brought on by  
four horsemen—the four negative styles of conflict.  
The stonewallingapproach is part of another conflict style, called the demand/withdraw interaction pattern, in  
which one partner attempts to start a discussion by criticizing, complaining, or suggesting change (Baucom et al.,  
[1 1.18]; King & DeLongis, [11.95]; Knobloch-Fedders et al., [11.99]). The other partner then attempts to end this  
discussion—or avoid the issue—by maintaining silence or withdrawing from the situation. In a heterosexual  
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relationship, the man is more likely to withdraw from conflict and the woman is more likely to take a leading role  
in initiating and discussing it.  
In contrast to the demand/withdraw pattern of interaction, some couples just avoid and deny the presence of any  
conflict in a relationship. Unfortunately , denial prevents couples from solving their problems at early stages, which  
can lead to even greater problems later on. On the other hand, expressing anger and disagreement also leads to  
lower marital satisfaction (Bloch et al., [11.28]; Gottman, [11.76]; MacKenzie et al., [11.114]). In fact, couples who  
show high levels of negative communication in their first few years of marriage are more likely than others to get  
divorced (Lavner & Bradbury , [1 1.105]; W orthington et al., [11.191]).  
As we've just seen, demanding, withdrawing, avoiding, denying, and expressing anger and disagreement all seem  
to lead to relationship problems. So what's the answer? Given that conflict is an inevitable and even healthy part of  
all our relationships, we need to learn better strategies for working through conflicts in a positive and productive  
way (Buehler, [1 1.32]; Flora & Segrin, [11.65]; Marigold & Anderson, [11.117]). See the following Try This  
Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Conflict Resolution Skills  
What can we do to successfully manage conflict in our own relationships? Understanding the other person's point  
of view and putting ourselves in their place is a good first step. People who can adopt their partner's perspective  
show more constructive responses to conflict.  
Second, because conflict and disagreements are an inevitable part of close relationships, people need to be able to  
forgive personal wrongdoings and apologize (Enright & Fitzgibbons, [11.59]; Flora & Segrin, [11.65]). Those who  
remember relationship transgressions their partner committed in a more positive and less severe light are more  
likely to have lasting and satisfying relationships (Gottman, [11.76]). Similarly , apologies minimize conflict, lead  
to forgiveness, and help you maintain relationship closeness.  
What makes for an effective apology? Research has identified six components (Lewicki et al., [11.113]):  
•Acknowledgment of responsibility  
•Offer of repair  
•Declaration of repentance  
•Expression of regret  
•Explanation of what went wrong  
•Request for forgiveness  
Research also shows that the first two items on this list, acknowledgment of responsibility and an offer of repair ,  
are the most important. Keep these tips in mind after your next conflict. A good apology will save or strengthen all  
your relationships—romantic and otherwise.  
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Saying “No”  
When faced with sexual or other types of conflict, how do you respond? Are you passive, aggressive, or assertive?  
In this section, we'll clarify the differences among these terms, help you identify and increase your own level of  
assertiveness, and improve your conflict resolution skills.  
Let's begin with passive behavior, which means failing to stand up for your rights even when you are fully justified  
in doing so. Although passive individuals often “get along” with everyone, they are less respected and less likely to  
achieve their personal goals. They also are self-denying and self-inhibiting, experience low self-esteem, and feel  
hurt and anxious (Alberti & Emmons, [11.3]; Brassard et al., [11.30]; Hays, [11.81]). Furthermore, passive sex  
partners may be seen as lackluster and as contributing little to the relationship.  
As will be discussed in Chapter 16, aggressionis any behavior intended to harm another . During conflict, an  
aggressive person will stand up for his or her rights, disregarding potential harm to others and possibly using  
insults, threats, and even physical intimidation and attacks. Aggressive behavior is more likely than passive  
behavior to get you what you want in the short term. But like passiveness, it too has negative long-term  
consequences. Others may initially give in to aggressive people and feel intimidated by them, yet they rarely like  
or respect them. Think about how much you liked or respected classroom or playground bullies when you were  
growing up. Furthermore, aggressive behavior far too often provokes aggressive responses that can easily escalate  
into violence.  
Assertiveness, which is defined as confidently and directly standing up for your rights without infringing on those  
of others, strikes a balance between passive and aggressive behavior. It means you directly and honestly request  
things you want and say “no” to things you don't want. As you might expect, assertive people tend to have higher  
levels of self-esteem, self-worth, and self-satisfaction because they have more control over their life choices and  
direction (Brassard et al., [11.30]; Hays, [11.81]; Sarkova et al., [11.159]). They're also more likely to avoid serious  
conflicts and to resolve them more effectively . Perhaps most importantly , assertiveness generally leads to higher  
goal attainment and to greater respect from others.  
How assertive are you in your everyday life? Do you stick up for your rights, or do you allow others to walk all  
over you? Do you say what you feel, or do you say what you think other people want you to say? Beginning in  
childhood, most of us were socialized to be “nice,” to say “yes,” and to please others. Regrettably, being overly  
nice often means sacrificing our own needs, which in turn allows hostility and frustration to accumulate and  
weaken our relationships. For tips on assertiveness, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself How to Say “No”  
A key step in becoming assertive is learning how to say “no.” When faced with a sexual or other situation in which  
you want to refuse the requests of another or to protect your own rights, try the following:  
•Be assertive nonverbally . Look the person in the eye, keep your head up, and keep your body firm but relaxed.  
Stand at an appropriate distance—not too close or too far away . Don't be a “shrinking violet.”  
•Use strong verbal signals. Speak clearly , firmly , and at a volume that can be easily heard.  
•Be strong. People are often persistent in their requests. Be prepared to repeat your refusal. Stick to your guns!  
•Just say “no.” Y ou don't have to explain why you're refusing. If you feel that you must explain why you're  
declining, try saying: “Thanks, but no. I really can't.…” “I really appreciate the offer , but no. I'm not  
interested/too busy/don't want any .…” “Please don't take this personally . I like you, but no, I don't …” or “I  
enjoy your company , and I'd like to do something together , but no.…”  
Can you see how accepting our right to be assertive may strengthen our resolve to speak up and defend ourselves  
in sexual situations and in all other parts of life? Keep in mind that assertive behavior doesn't guarantee that we'll  
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achieve our goals or force others to respect our rights. But it can definitely increase our chances of doing so.  
Retrieval Practice 1 1.5 Sex and Modern Life  
Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
List some suggestions for counseling parents and other caregivers about avoiding child sexual abuse.  
2\.   
Which of the following is a myth about rape?  
a. A man cannot be raped by a woman.  
b. All women secretly want to be raped.  
c. W omen cannot be raped against their will.  
d. All these options are myths about rape.  
3\.   
Research has shown that ________are more likely to use speech to convey information, exert control, preserve  
independence, and enhance their status, whereas ________tend to use speech to achieve and share intimacy ,  
promote closeness, and maintain relationships.  
a. older men; younger men  
b. older women; younger women  
c. men; women  
d. heterosexuals; women and men  
4\.   
According to John Gottman's research, ________means emotionally withdrawing and refusing to participate in  
conversation.  
a. defensiveness  
b. contempt  
c. stonewalling  
d. neglect  
5\.   
________is defined as confidently and directly standing up for your rights without infringing on those of others.  
a. Androgyny  
b. Assertiveness  
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c. Ambitiousness  
d. Each of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 14 (Psychological Disorders), you'll discover that women are much more likely than men to suffer from  
depression. How might some of the biological, psychological, and social factors related to sex and gender  
explained in this chapter contribute to sexual victimization and depression in women?


	12. Chapter 12

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12.1 Theories of Motivation  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own  
words.  
Summarize the major theories of motivation.  
•Definemotivation.  
•Discussthe three key biological theories of motivation.  
•Describetwo psychological theories of motivation.  
•Explainhow biopsychosocial theories apply to motivation.  
Y ears of research on motivation has created six major theories, which fall into three general categories— biological,  
psychological, and biopsychosocial(T able12.1). While studying these theories, try to identify which theory best  
explains your personal behaviors, such as going to college or choosing a lifetime partner. This type of personal  
focus will not only improve your exam performance but also may lead to increased self-knowledge and personal  
motivation!  
T able12.1Six Major Theories of Motivation  
Theory Description  
Name That TheoryCuriosity is a key aspect of both human  
and nonhuman experience. Which of the six theories of  
motivation best explains this behavior?  
Biological  
1.Instinct  
Motivation results from innate  
biological instincts, which are  
unlearned responses found in almost  
all members of a species.  
2.Drive  
reduction  
Motivation begins with a biological  
need (a lack or deficiency) that  
elicits a drivetoward behavior that  
will satisfy the original need and  
restore homeostasis.  
3.Optimal  
arousal  
Organisms are motivated to achieve  
and maintain an optimal level of  
arousal.  
Psychological  
4.Incentive  
Motivation results from external  
stimuli that “pull” the organism in  
certain directions.  
5.Cognitive  
Motivation is affected by  
expectations and attributions, or how  
we interpret or think about our own  
or others' actions.  
Biopsychosocial   
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Theory Description  
6.Maslow's  
hierarchy of  
needs  
Lower needs like hunger and safety  
must be satisfied before advancing to  
higher needs (such as belonging and  
self-actualization).  
Biological Theories  
There are three key biological theories of motivation—instinct, drive reduction, and optimal arousal.  
1.Instinct One of the earliest researchers, William McDougall ([12.144]), proposed that humans have numerous  
instincts, such as repulsion, curiosity , and self-assertiveness. Other researchers later added their favorite  
instincts, and by the 1920s, the list of recognized instincts had become impossibly long. One researcher found  
listings for more than 10,000 human instincts (Bernard, [12.24]).  
In addition, the label instinctled to unscientific, circular explanations—“men are aggressive because they are  
instinctively aggressive” or “women are maternal because they have a natural maternal instinct.” However, in  
recent years, a branch of biology called sociobiology (Apicella et al., [12.10]; Shenkman, [12.189]; Wilson,  
[12.225]) has revived the case for instinctswhen strictly defined as fixed, unlearned r esponse patterns found in  
almost all members of a species(Figure12.1).  
a. Instincts and nonhuman animals  
Instinctual behaviors are obvious in many animals.  
Birds build nests, bears hibernate, and salmon  
swim upstream to spawn.  
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b. Do humans have instincts?  
Sociobiologists such as Edward O. Wilson  
([12.223], [12.224]) believe that humans also have  
instincts, like competition and aggression, which  
are genetically transmitted from one generation to  
another .  
Figure 12.1 Instincts  
2.Drive reduction In the 1930s, the concept of drive reduction began to replace the theory of instincts.  
According to drive-reduction theory(Hull, [12.103]), when biological needs such as the needs for food, water,  
and oxygen are unmet, a state of tension known as a driveis created. The organism is then motivated to reduce  
that drive. The overall goal of drive reduction is to restore homeostasis—the body's tendency to maintain  
equilibrium, or a steady state of internal balance (Step-by-Step Diagram12.1). T o keep our bodies functioning  
at an appropriate level, numerous biological states must be balanced within a certain range, including hunger,  
blood glucose, temperature, and oxygenation.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 12.1 Drive-Reduction Theory  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to  
appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
When we are hungry or thirsty, the disruption of our normal state of equilibrium creates a drive that motivates  
us to search for food or water . Once action is taken and the need is satisfied, homeostasis is restored, and our  
motivation decreases.  
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3.Optimal arousal In addition to having obvious biological needs, humans and other animals are innately  
curious and require a certain amount of novelty and complexity from the environment. According to optimalarousal theory, organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal that maximizes  
their performance. Both too much and too little arousal diminish performance ( Figure12.2). The desired  
amount of arousal also may vary from person to person (see the following Try This Y ourself).  
Figure 12.2 Optimal level of  
arousalOur need for stimulation  
(the arousal motive) suggests that  
behavior efficiency increases as  
we move from deep sleep to  
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increased alertness. However ,  
once we pass the optimal level of  
arousal, our performance  
declines.  
Try This Y ourself Sensation Seeking  
What motivates people to bungee jump over deep canyons or white-water raft down dangerous rivers?  
According to research, these “high-sensation seekers” may be biologically “prewired” to need a higher-thanusual level of stimulation (Zuckerman, [12.236], [12.237]; Zuckerman & Aluja, [12.238]). Researchers have  
also identified several characteristics of sensation seeking (Drane et al., [12.54]; Maples-Keller et al., [12.136];  
Zuckerman & Aluja, [12.238]):  
•Thrill and adventure seeking (skydiving, driving fast, or traveling to an unusual, “off the beaten path”  
location).  
•Experience seeking (unusual friends, exotic foods or restaurants, drug experimentation).  
•Disinhibition (“letting loose”).  
•Susceptibility to boredom (lower tolerance for repetition and sameness).  
T o sample the questions asked on tests for sensation seeking, circle the choice (a or b) that best describes you:  
1.  
a.I would like a job that requires a lot of traveling.  
b.I would prefer a job in one location.  
2.  
a.I get bored seeing the same old faces.  
b.I like the comfortable familiarity of everyday friends.  
3.  
a.The most important goal of life is to live it to the fullest and experience as much as possible.  
b.The most important goal of life is to find peace and happiness.  
4.  
a.I would like to try parachute jumping.  
b.I would never want to try jumping out of a plane, with or without a parachute.  
5.  
a.I prefer people who are emotionally expressive even if they are a bit unstable.  
b.I prefer people who are calm and even-tempered.  
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Source: Zuckerman, M.(1978, February). The search for high sensation, Psychology T oday, pp. 38–46.  
Think Critically  
1\.   
If you answered mostly “a” to these five questions, you're probably a high-sensation seeker. If so, what do you  
do to satisfy that urge, and what can you do to make sure it doesn't get out of control?  
2\.   
If you are low in sensation seeking, has this trait interfered with some aspect of your life? If so, what could you  
do to improve your functioning in this area?  
3\.   
How might having either a very high or very low score on these questions cause trouble in relationships or in  
your choice of a career?  
In addition to the need for an optimal overall level of arousal and stimulation, keep in mind that the degree of  
maximal arousal changes with the difficulty of a task. According to the Y erkes-Dodson law, maximum  
performance on complex, unfamiliar tasks requires a moderately low level of arousal, whereas simple, well-learned  
tasks require a moderately high arousal level (Figure12.3). How can this information be helpful in your everyday  
life? Have you ever “blanked out” during a stressful exam and been unable to answer questions that you thought  
you knew? This was probably due to overarousal. And it helps explain why overlearningis so critical—especially  
if you're someone who suffers from test anxiety . As discussed in Chapter 1, you need to study and practice until the  
information is firmly locked in place. On the other hand, if you find yourself getting bored and distracted while  
studying, do something to raise your arousal level, such as drinking coffee, taking a walk, and/or reminding  
yourself how critical it is to do well on the exam.  
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Figure 12.3 The Y erkes-Dodson  
lawNote how we generally perform  
complex, unfamiliar tasks (red line)  
best when our arousal level is  
moderately low. In contrast, we're best  
at simple, well-learned tasks (blue line)  
when our arousal level is moderately  
high.  
Psychological Theories  
Instinct and drive-reduction theories explain some motivations, but why do we continue to eat after our biological  
need has been completely satisfied? Why do some of us work overtime when our salary is sufficient to meet all  
basic biological needs? These questions are best answered by psychological theories that emphasize incentives and  
cognition.  
Unlike drive-reduction theory, which states that internal factors pushpeople in certain directions, incentive theory  
maintains that external stimuli pullpeople toward desirable goals or away from undesirable ones. Most of us  
initially eat because our hunger “pushes” us (drive-reduction theory). But the sight of apple pie or ice cream too  
often “pulls” us toward continued eating (incentive theory). As you may know , highly processed foods with added  
salt, fats, and/or refined carbohydrates also increase the motivation to eat and may even create cravings and like  
eating (Ma et al., [12.138]; Polk et al., [12.173]; Soto-Escageda et al., [12.195]).  
According to cognitive theories, motivation is directly affected by attributions, or the ways in which we interpret  
or think about our own and others' actions (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Using Attributions to Explain Grades  
Imagine that you receive a high grade on a test in your psychology course. Y ou can interpret that grade in several  
ways: Y ou earned it because you really studied, you “lucked out” because the test was easy, or the textbook was  
exceptionally interesting and helpful (our preference!). As you might expect, people who attribute their successes  
to personal control and effort tend to work harder toward their goals than people who attribute their successes to  
luck (Aruguete & Hardy , [12.12]; Gorges & Göke, [12.85]; W einer , [12.215], [12.216]).  
Expectancies, or what we believe or assume will happen, are also important to motivation (Best et al., [12.26];  
Dietrich et al., [12.51]). If you anticipate that you will receive a promotion at work, you're more likely to work  
overtime for no pay than if you do not expect a promotion. Similarly , expectancies that alcohol will increase  
sociability and decrease anxiety and negative emotions lead many people to increase their alcohol consumption,  
particularly in unfamiliar social settings (Anthenien et al., [12.9]; Baines et al., [12.17]; Fairbain & Bresin,  
[12.66]). See Figure12.4.  
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Figure 12.4 Expectancies as psychological  
motivatorsWhat expectations might these  
people have about the champagne that will  
motivate them to drink it? Think about all the  
advertisements for alcohol and the pressure  
from others to “join in.” Can you see how  
these expectancies and pressures might  
contribute to problem drinking?  
Biopsychosocial Theories  
Research in psychology generally emphasizes either biological or psychosocial factors (nature or nurture). But  
biopsychosocial factors almost always provide the best explanation, and the theories of motivation are no  
exception. One researcher who believed in biopsychosocial factors as predictors of motivation was Abraham  
Maslow ([12.140], [12.141]). He believed we all have numerous needs that compete for fulfillment but that some  
needs are more vital than others. For example, food and shelter are typically more critical than good grades.  
As you can see in Figure12.5, Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs, starting with survival needs at the bottom  
level (which must be met before others) and self-actualization needs at the top. Self-actualizationis the inborn  
drive to develop all our talents and capabilities. This seems intuitively correct: A starving person would first look  
for food, then security , then love and friendship, and so forth.  
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Figure 12.5 Maslow's hierarchy of needsMaslow's theory of motivation suggests that we all  
share a compelling need to “move up”—to grow , improve ourselves, and ultimately become  
“self-actualized.”  
The hierarchy of needs and related humanistic concepts have played major roles in psychology, economics, and  
other related fields (D'Souza & Gurin, [12.55]; Hsu, [12.100]; Winston et al., [12.226]). One example comes from  
standard marketing texts, which often use the hierarchy of needs to imply that brand consumption is a natural,  
driving force in shopping behaviors. Ironically , Maslow's work and humanistic ideals would emphasize less, not  
more, consumption (Hackley, [12.93]).  
Maslow's critics argue that parts of his theory are poorly researched and biased toward W estern preferences for  
individualism. Furthermore, his theory presupposes that the lower needs must be satisfied before someone can  
achieve self-actualization, but people sometimes seek to satisfy higher-level needs even when their lower-level  
needs have not been met (Cullen & Gotell, [12.39]; Kress et al., [12.118]; Neher, [12.161]). For example, people  
all over the world have used starvation as a way to protest unfair laws and political situations.  
Retrieval Practice 12.1 Theories of Motivation  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
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Self-T est  
1\.   
Define motivation.  
2\.   
This diagram illustrates the ________theory , in which motivation decreases once homeostasis occurs.  
a. cognitive  
b. hierarchy of needs  
c. incentive  
d. drive-reduction  
3\.   
________says people are “pulled” by external stimuli to act a certain way .  
a. Cognitive theory  
b. Incentive theory  
c. Maslow's hierarchy of needs  
d. Drive-reduction theory  
4\.   
According to Maslow's ________, lower-level motives have to be satisfied before a person can advance to  
fulfilling higher motives.  
a. psychosexual stages of development  
b. moral stages of development  
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c. psychosocial stages of development  
d. hierarchy of needs  
5\.   
The humanistic term for the inborn drive to develop all one's talents and capabilities is known as ________.  
a. a cognitive “peak”  
b. self-actualization  
c. a hierarchy of needs  
d. drive-perfection theory  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 1 (Gender and Human Sexuality), you discovered how social-learning theory and cognitivedevelopmental theory explain how we form our attitudes, beliefs, and expectations about gender roles. In this  
chapter , you read about how incentives and cognitions affect motivation. How might social-learning theory and  
cognitive-developmental theory help to explain why some people are more motivated than others?  
.  
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12.2 Motivation and Behavior  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review how the key factors of motivation affect behavior .  
•Discussthe major factors that influence hunger and eating.  
•Describethe major eating problems and disorders.  
•Defineachievement motivation and list the characteristics of high achievers.  
•Compareextrinsic and intrinsic motivation.  
Why do people put themselves in dangerous situations? Why do salmon swim upstream to spawn? Behavior results from  
many motives. For example, we discuss the need for sleep in Chapter 5, and we look at aggression, altruism, and  
interpersonal attraction in Chapter 16. Here, we focus on the basic motivational processes underlying hunger and eating,  
eating problems and disorders, and achievement. Then we turn to a discussion of how extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation  
affects our performance.  
Hunger and Eating  
Have you ever been on a long hike, camping trip, or similar situation in which you ran out of food? Consistent with our  
earlier discussion of Maslow's first and lowest level of needs, did you notice that all you could think or talk about was  
food? What specifically motivates hunger? Is it your growling stomach? Or is it your daydreams or the actual the sight of a  
juicy hamburger or the smell of a freshly baked cinnamon roll?  
Biological Factors  
•The stomach W alter B. Cannon and A. L. W ashburn ([12.33]) conducted one of the earliest experiments exploring the  
internal factors in hunger (Figure12.6). In this study , W ashburn swallowed a balloon and then inflated it in his  
stomach. His stomach contractions and subjective reports of hunger feelings were then simultaneously recorded.  
Because each time W ashburn reported having stomach pangs (or “growling”) the balloon also contracted, the  
researchers concluded that stomach movement causedthe sensation of hunger .  
Figure 12.6 Cannon and W ashburn's classic experiment on  
hungerAs a participant in his own study, W ashburn  
swallowed a special balloon designed to detect stomach  
movement. His stomach movements were automatically  
recorded on graph paper attached to a rotating drum.  
Whenever W ashburn experienced “hunger pangs,” he would  
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press a key that made a recording on the same graph paper.  
The two recordings (stomach movements and hunger  
sensations) were then compared. Finding that W ashburn's  
stomach contractions occurred at the same time as his  
feelings of hunger led these early researchers to conclude  
that stomach movements caused hunger . Later research  
altered this conclusion.  
Can you identify what's wrong with this study? As you discovered in Chapter 1, correlation does not mean causation.  
Furthermore, researchers must always control for the possibility of confounding variables, factors that contribute  
irrelevant data and confuse the results. In this case, it was later found that an empty stomach is relatively inactive. The  
stomach contractions experienced by W ashburn were an experimental artifact—something resulting from the presence  
of the balloon. W ashburn's stomach had been tricked into thinking it was full and was responding by trying to digest  
the balloon!  
In sum—as dieters who drink lots of water to keep their stomachs feeling full have been disappointed to discover—  
sensory input from an empty stomach is not essential for feeling hungry . In fact, humans and nonhuman animals  
without stomachs continue to experience hunger.  
However, there is a connection between the stomach and feeling hungry . Receptors in the stomach and intestines detect  
levels of nutrients, and specialized pressure receptors in the stomach walls signal feelings of either emptiness or satiety  
(fullness). The stomach and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract also release chemical signals that play a role in  
hunger (Feinle-Bissett, [12.69]; François et al., [12.76]; W ashington et al., [12.213]).  
•Biochemistry The brain and other parts of the body produce numerous neurotransmitters, hormones, enzymes, and  
other chemicals that affect hunger and satiety (Herisson et al., [12.96]; Hsu et al., [12.100]; van A vesaat et al.,  
[12.205]). Research in this area is complex because of the large number of known (and unknown) bodily chemicals and  
the interactions among them. It's unlikely that any one chemical controls our hunger and eating. Other internal factors,  
such as thermogenesis—the heat generated in response to food ingestion—also play a role (Hudson et al., [12.102];  
Williams, [12.221]).  
•The brain Specific brain structures also influence hunger and eating. Let's look at the hypothalamus, which helps  
regulate eating, drinking, and body temperature. Early research suggested that one area of the hypothalamus, the lateral  
hypothalamus (LH), stimulates eating, while another area, the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), creates feelings of  
satiety , signaling the animal to stop eating. When the VMH area was destroyed in rats, researchers found that the rats  
overate to the point of extreme obesity (Figure12.7). In contrast, when the LH area was destroyed, the animals starved  
to death if they were not force-fed.  
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a. Hunger and the hypothalamus  
This diagram shows a section of the  
human brain, including the ventromedial  
hypothalamus (VMH) and the lateral  
hypothalamus (LH), which are involved in  
the regulation of hunger .  
b. Damage to the hypothalamus  
After the ventromedial area of the  
hypothalamus of the rat on the left was  
destroyed, it overate to the point that its  
body weight tripled compared to the  
normal weight rat on the right.  
Figure 12.7 How the brain affects  
eatingSeveral areas of the brain are active  
in the regulation of hunger , but the  
hypothalamus is a key player .  
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Later research, however, showed that the LH and VMH areas are not simple on–off switches for eating. Damage to the  
VMH not only leads ultimately to severe weight gain, but also makes animals picky eaters that reject a wide variety of  
foods. Can you see how this picky eating doesn't match the idea that rats with a damaged VMH overeat because they  
aren't satiated and just can't stop eating? Furthermore, normal rats force-fed to become overweight also become picky  
eaters. T oday , researchers know that the hypothalamus plays a key role in hunger and eating, but it is not the brain's  
“eating center .” In fact, hunger and eating, like virtually all other behaviors, are influenced by numerous factors  
interacting throughout various areas of our brains (Herisson et al., [12.96]; Hofmann et al., [12.98]; Seeley & Berridge,  
[12.187]).  
Psychosocial Factors  
The internal motivations for hunger we've discussed (the stomach, biochemistry, and the brain) are powerful. But  
psychosocial factors—spying a luscious dessert or smelling a McDonald's hamburger, or even simply noticing that it's  
almost lunchtime—can be equally important stimulus cues for hunger and eating. In fact, researchers have found that  
simply looking at pictures of high-fat foods, such as hamburgers, cookies, and cheesecake, can stimulate parts of the brain  
in charge of appetite, thereby increasing feelings of hunger and cravings for sweet or salty foods (Luo et al., [12.109];  
Schüz et al., [12.186]).  
Another significant psychosocial influence on when, what, where, and why we eat is cultural conditioning. People in the  
United States typically eat dinner at around 6 p.m., whereas people in Spain and South America tend to eat around 10 p.m.  
When it comes to whatwe eat, have you ever eaten guinea pig, dog, or horse meat? This might sound repulsive to you, yet  
most Hindus in India would feel a similar revulsion at the thought of eating meat from cows.  
In sum, numerous biological and psychosocial factors operate in the regulation of hunger and eating ( Figure12.8), and  
researchers are still struggling to discover and explain how all these processes work together.  
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Figure 12.8 Key mechanisms in hunger regulationDifferent parts of your body communicate with your brain to trigger  
feelings of hunger .  
Eating Problems and Disorders  
The same biopsychosocial forces that explain hunger and eating also play a role in four serious eating problems and  
disorders: obesity, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder (BED).  
Obesity  
Imagine that you were born and lived your life on another planet, but you could receive all the Earth's normal television  
channels. Given that almost all the television stars, newscasters, and commercial spokespeople you've ever seen are very  
thin, would you wonder why there are so many ads promoting weight loss? How would you explain the recent news that  
obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States and other developed nations?  
Obviously , there is a large gap between the select few appearing on television and those of us in the real world. In fact,  
more than one-third of adults in the United States are considered to be overweight, and another third are considered to be  
medically obese (Flegal et al., [12.72]; Reed, [12.177]). In 2013, obesity was officially classified as a disease in the latest  
version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM) (American Psychiatric Association, [12.7]).  
(See Chapter 14 for a discussion of the DSM.)  
What is obesity? The most widely used measure of weight status is body mass index (BMI), which is a single numerical  
value that calculates height in relation to weight. Having a BMI of 30.0 and above is considered obese (see the Try This  
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Y ourself). Sadly , obesity is one of our greatest health threats because of its significant contribution to serious illnesses like  
heart disease, diabetes, ischemic stroke, and certain cancers (Guo & Garvey, [12.91]; Kroll et al., [12.1 19]; Miller &  
Brooks-Gunn, [12.152]). In addition, each year billions of dollars are spent treating serious and life-threatening medical  
problems related to obesity , with consumers spending billions more on largely ineffective weight-loss products and  
services.  
Try This Y ourself Calculating Y our Own BMI  
T o determine your BMI, use the Adult BMI Calculatorat the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention site:  
http://www .cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/  
Y ou also can compute your BMI by following these three steps:  
1.Multiply your weight in pounds by 703.  
2.Multiply your height in inches by itself (e.g., if your height is 63 inches, you would multiply 63 × 63).  
3.Divide step 1 by step 2.  
If your BMI is: Y ou are:  
18.5 and below Underweight  
18.5 to 24.9 Healthy weight  
25.0 to 29.9 Overweight  
30.0 and above Obese  
Note:If your BMI is due to muscle or bone, rather than fat, it's possible to have a high BMI and still be healthy .  
Source:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017.  
Controlling weight is a particularly difficult task for people in the United States. For one thing, calorie-dense snack foods,  
like candy and chips, are heavily advertised, and many retail stores deliberately “corral” customers through their checkout  
lines so that it's necessary to pass by (and actively resist) these tempting treats (Basch et al., [12.19]). Indeed, Americans  
are constantly bombarded with advertisements for fattening foods, and we've become accustomed to “supersized”  
cheeseburgers, “Big Gulp” drinks, and huge servings of dessert (Almiron-Roig et al., [12.5]; Fast et al., [12.68]; Folkvord  
et al., [12.74]).  
Moreover, we've been taught that we should eat three meals a day , whether we're hungry or not; that “tasty” food requires  
lots of salt, sugar , and fat; and that food is an essential part of the workplace and almost all social gatherings ( Figure12.9).  
T o make matters worse, research clearly shows that both children and adults eat more calories when they're sleep-deprived  
(Al Khatib et al., [12.4]; Mullins et al., [12.156]). And Americans are among the most sleep-deprived (Chapter 5), and  
most sedentary— that is, least physically active—people in the world.  
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Figure 12.9 A fattening environmentA popular television program, The  
Biggest Loser, shows how difficult it is for contestants to lose weight. Even  
more difficult, and seldom shown, is how hard it is to maintain weight loss.  
T o make it permanent, we need to make lasting lifestyle changes regarding  
exercise, as well as the amount and types of foods we eat. Can you see how  
our everyday environments, such as the workplace shown here, might make  
it harder for a person who wants to make healthier lifestyle changes?  
What about those people who can seemingly eat anything they want and still not add pounds? This may be a result of their  
ability to burn more calories in the process of thermogenesis, a higher metabolic rate, and other possible individual and  
environmental factors (Pérusse et al., [12.171]; van Dongen et al., [12.207]; Zhou et al., [12.234]). Ironically, research  
consistently finds that low-calorie sweeteners, such as saccharin and sucralose, negatively affect thermogenesis and  
metabolism and are linked to weight gain and increased obesity (e.g., Fowler, [12.75]).  
In addition, researchers have isolated a large number of genes that contribute to normal and abnormal weight  
(Albuquerque et al., [12.3]; Dubois et al., [12.56]; van Dijk et al., [12.206]). The good news is that one of these identified  
genes may provide a potential genetic explanation for why some people overeat and run a greater risk for obesity (e.g.,  
Levitan et al., [12.129]; Nascimento et al., [12.158]; Pedram et al., [12.169]). Research finds that people who carry  
variants of the FTO gene don't feel full after eating and overeat because they have higher blood levels of ghrelin—a known  
hunger-producing hormone (Hess & Brüning, [12.97]; Tunçel et al., [12.204]; van Name et al., [12.209]). Fortunately ,  
ghrelin can be reduced by engaging in exercise and eating a high-protein diet (Bailey et al., [12.16]; Hofmann et al.,  
[12.99]; W illiams, [12.222]). But scientists caution that more research is needed and that human appetite and obesity are  
undoubtedly more complex than a single hormone.  
Eating Disorders  
The three major eating disorders—anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder(BED)—are found in all  
ethnicities, all socioeconomic classes, and both sexes. However, they are more common in women (American Psychiatric  
Association, [12.7]; Bohon, [12.30]; Eddy et al., [12.59]). Anorexia nervosais characterized by an overwhelming fear of  
becoming obese, a need for control, the use of dangerous weight-loss measures, and a body image that is so distorted that  
even a skeletal, emaciated body is perceived as fat. The resulting extreme malnutrition often leads to osteoporosis, bone  
fractures, interruption of menstruation in women, and loss of brain tissue. One study suggests that anorexia is linked with  
particular brain activation patterns—such as the part of the brain linked with automatic responding (Foerde et al., [12.73]).  
This means that anorexic people may make food decisions based on habit (e.g., I only eat low-fat foods), and not on  
reward centers, as do healthy people.  
Occasionally , a person suffering from anorexia nervosa succumbs to the desire to eat and gorges on food, then vomits or  
takes laxatives. However , this type of sporadic bingeing and purging is more characteristic of bulimia nervosa. Individuals  
with bulimia go on recurrent eating binges and then purge by self-induced vomiting or the use of laxatives. They generally  
feel out of control during the binge episodes and alternate between overeating and fasting. In addition, people with bulimia  
are often impulsive—sometimes engaging in excessive shopping, alcohol abuse, or petty shoplifting (Mustelin et al.,  
[12.157]; Pearson et al., [12.168]; Slane et al., [12.192]). The vomiting associated with bulimia nervosa causes severe  
damage to the teeth, throat, and stomach. It also leads to cardiac arrhythmia, metabolic deficiencies, and serious digestive  
disorders.  
Note that bulimia is similar to but not the same as binge-eating disorder (BED). Like bulimia, this disorder involves  
recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food in a short period of time while feeling a lack of control over eating.  
However, the individual does not try to purge (American Psychiatric Association, [12.7]; Amianto et al., [12.8]).  
Individuals with BED also generally eat more rapidly than normal, eat until they are uncomfortably full, and eat when not  
feeling physically hungry . In addition, they frequently eat alone because of embarrassment at the large quantities they are  
consuming, and they feel disgusted, depressed, and/or very guilty after bingeing.  
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There are many suspected causes of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder (BED). Some theories  
focus on physical causes, such as hypothalamic disorders, low levels of various neurotransmitters, and genetic or hormonal  
disorders. Other theories emphasize psychosocial factors, such as a need for perfection, a perceived loss of control, a drive  
for thinness, destructive thought patterns, depression, dysfunctional families, distorted body image, and emotional or  
sexual abuse (e.g., American Psychiatric Association, [12.7]; Bodell et al., [12.28]; Evans et al., [12.65]). In addition,  
heavy use of social media appears to be associated with an increased risk of eating disorders. Apparently, browsing sites  
like Facebook leads to more body dissatisfaction. W omen who compare their own photos with those of their friends, and  
women who overvalue receiving comments and “likes” on their status updates, are at particular risk of eating disorders  
(Mabe et al., [12.134]).  
Culture and ethnicity also play significant roles in eating disorders (Brewerton & Dennis, [12.31]; Reyes-Rodríguez et al.,  
[12.178]; Smart & T song, [12.193]). For instance, U.S. Blacks report fewer overall eating disorders and greater satisfaction  
with their bodies than other U.S. groups.  
Regardless of the causes of these eating disorders, it's important to recognize the symptoms of anorexia, bulimia, and  
binge-eating disorder (T able12.2) and to seek therapy if the symptoms apply to you. The key point to remember is that all  
eating disorders are serious and chronic conditions that require treatment. In fact, some studies find that they have the  
highest mortality rates of all mental illnesses (Goldberg et al., [12.84]; Zerwas et al., [12.232]).  
T able12.2Symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder (BED)  
Anorexia  
Nervosa  
Bulimia Nervosa  
Binge-Eating Disorder  
(BED)  
•W eight less  
than 85% of  
normal for  
age and  
height  
•Intense  
fear of  
gaining  
weight,  
even when  
underweight  
•Persistent  
behavior to  
avoid  
weight gain  
•Distorted  
body image,  
denial of  
seriousness  
of weight  
loss  
•Repeated episodes of  
binge eating, consuming  
unusually large amounts  
of food in a short period  
of time  
•Feeling out of control  
over eating during the  
binge episode  
•Purging behaviors after  
eating, including  
vomiting, use of laxatives  
or other medications,  
and/or excessive exercise  
•Alternating between  
overeating and fasting  
•Repeated episodes of  
binge eating,  
consuming unusually  
large amounts of food  
in a short period of  
time  
•Feeling out of control  
over eating during the  
binge episode  
•Eating much more  
rapidly than normal,  
eating large amounts  
when not feeling  
physically hungry  
•Feeling ashamed and  
guilty after bingeing  
•No compensatory  
purging behaviors,  
such as vomiting,  
laxatives, and/or  
excessive exercise  
Many celebrities, like Lady Gaga, have publicly  
shared their battles with eating disorders. But  
does this type of publicity increase or decrease  
the chance that their fans will suffer similar  
problems?  
Achievement Motivation  
Although hunger is a primary motivator in all animals, we humans experience complex psychological and social needs that  
drive us throughout our lifespan. Consider what motivates you to go to college. Y our first answer might be “to get a good  
job.” But what motivates you to compete with your classmates for a better grade? According to psychologist David  
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McClelland's concept of achievement motivation, most people have a desire to excel, especially in competition with  
others. W e also want to succeed at attaining our goals, mastering skills or ideas, and gaining control of our lives.  
One of the earliest tests for achievement motivation was devised by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray ([12.155]).  
Using a series of ambiguous pictures called the Thematic Apperception T est(T A T), these researchers asked participants to  
make up a story about each picture (see the following Try This Y ourself). The participants' responses were then scored for  
different motivational themes, including achievement.  
Try This Y ourself Measuring Achievement  
This card is a sample from the Thematic Apperception T est(T A T). The strength of an individual's need for achievement is  
reportedly measured by stories he or she tells about the T A T drawings. If you want an informal test using this method, look  
closely at the two people in the photo, and then write a short story answering the following questions:  
1.What is happening in this picture, and what led up to it?  
2.Who are the people is this picture, and how do they feel?  
3.What is going to happen in the next few moments, and in a few weeks?  
Scoring  
Give yourself 1 point each time any of the following is mentioned: (1) defining a problem, (2) solving a problem, (3)  
obstructions to solving a problem, (4) techniques that can help overcome the problem, (5) anticipation of success or  
resolution of the problem. The higher your score on this test, the higher your supposed overall need for achievement.  
In addition to the T A T , researchers have developed several other questionnaires and interview methods designed to  
measure the need for achievement (nAch). And thanks to their research findings, we now know that some individuals are  
significantly more achievement oriented than others.  
Think back to our opening story of Malala Y ousafzai, the Nobel Prize–winning teenager . What motivates her to continue  
her dangerous crusade for education for young girls despite being shot and under continual threats? Or what drives  
someone like Oprah W infrey , the famous television star , thriving businesswoman, and generous philanthropist? What  
motivates Olympic athletes to work so hard for a gold medal?  
Researchers have found that high achievers tend to have had parents, teachers, or other close adults who encouraged  
independence and frequently rewarded success (Ganimian & Murnane, [12.79]; Gaudreau et al., [12.80]; Pomerantz &  
Kempner, [12.174]). Other aspects of the environment, cultural values, and genetics also affect achievement needs (AlSharfi et al., [12.6]; Greenfield & Quiroz, [12.88]; Luginbuhl et al., [12.131]). Interestingly, a study of 13,000 identical and  
fraternal twins from six different countries found that academic motivation (enjoyment of reading, math, science, etc.) is  
determined about half by cultural values and differing environmental experiences, with the other half governed by genetics  
(Kovas et al., [12.1 16]).  
Given that we have little or no control over our parents, early childhood environment, or cultural values, achievement is  
largely up to us as individuals. As you've seen repeatedly throughout this text, having a growth mindsetand grit(passion  
and perseverance) are the keys to success and achievement in both work and academic settings (Claro et al, [12.35]; Datu  
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et al., 2015; Dweck, [12.57], [12.58]). Although some people may have been taught, or may have developed on their own,  
a fixed mindset, and believe that their abilities are set in stone, we all have a great capacity to change, adapt, and grow .  
For a personal test of your own type of achievement needs and more information on the specific traits that distinguish high  
achievers, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Need for Achievement (nAch )  
Researchers have identified at least six traits that distinguish people with a high nAch (Harwood et al., [12.95];  
McClelland, [12.142], [12.143]; Schunk & Zimmerman, [12.185]; Stadler et al., [12.196]). Place a check mark next to  
each trait that applies to you or to traits that you may want to work to develop:  
•______ Preference for moderately difficult tasksPeople high in nAch avoid tasks that are too easy because they offer  
little challenge or satisfaction. They also avoid extremely difficult tasks because the probability of success is too low .  
•______ CompetitivenessHigh-achievement-oriented people are more attracted to careers and tasks that involve  
competition and an opportunity to excel.  
•______ Preference for clear goals with competent feedbackHigh-achievement-oriented people typically prefer tasks  
with clear outcomes and situations in which they can receive feedback on their performance. Likewise, they prefer  
criticism from a harsh but competent evaluator to criticism from one who is friendlier but less competent.  
•______ Self-regulation and personal responsibilityHigh-achievement-oriented people purposefully control their  
thoughts and behaviors to attain their goals. In addition, they prefer being personally responsible for a project so that  
they can feel satisfied when the task is well done.  
•______ Mental toughness and persistenceHigh-achievement-oriented people have a mindset that allows them to  
persevere through difficult circumstances. It includes attributes like sacrifice and self-denial, which help them maintain  
concentration and motivation when things aren't going well.  
•______ More accomplishedPeople who have high nAch scores do better than others on exams, earn better grades in  
school, and excel in their chosen professions.  
Extrinsic V ersus Intrinsic Motivation  
Have you ever noticed that for all the money and glory they receive, professional athletes often don't look like they're  
enjoying themselves very much? What's the problem? Why don't they appreciate how lucky they are to be able to make a  
living by playing games?  
One way psychologists attempt to answer questions about motivation is by distinguishing between extrinsic motivation,  
based on external rewards or avoidance of punishments, and intrinsic motivation, based on internal, personal satisfaction  
from a task or activity (Deci & Moller, [12.41]; R yan & Deci, [12.181]). As you can see in the photo of the child jumping  
into the pool, when people do something for no ulterior purpose, they have internal, personal reasons (“I like it”; “It's fun”)  
(see the photo). But when extrinsic rewards are added, the explanation shifts to external, impersonal reasons (“I did it for  
the money”; “I did it to please my parents”). This shift often decreases enjoyment and hampers performance. This is as  
true for professional athletes as it is for anyone else.  
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Intrinsic motivation  
Judging by the expression on this child's face, he is jumping in the pool for the sheer joy and pleasure of swimming—  
intrinsic motivation.  
A classic experiment demonstrating this effect was conducted with preschool children who liked to draw (Lepper et al.,  
[12.126]). These researchers found that children who were given paper and markers, and promised a reward for their  
drawings, were subsequently less interested in drawing than children who were not given a reward or who were given an  
unexpected reward for their pictures when they were done. Likewise, a decade-long study of over 10,000 W est Point  
cadets found that those who were motivated to pursue a military career for internal reasons, such as personal ambition,  
were more likely to receive early career promotions than those who attended a military academy for external reasons, such  
as family expectations (Wrzesniewski et al., [12.229]).  
As it turns out, however, there is considerable controversy over individual differences in what motivates someone, as well  
as under what conditions giving extrinsic rewards increases or decreases motivation (Bareket-Bojmel et al., [12.18]; Deci  
& Ryan, [12.42], [12.43]; Zhang et al., [12.169]). Furthermore, research shows that not all extrinsic motivation is bad. In  
one study , elementary school students were simply mailed books weekly during the summer, were mailed books along  
with a reading incentive, or were assigned to a control group with no books or incentives. The researchers found that  
students who were initially more motivated to read were also more responsive to incentives (Guryan et al., [12.92]). As  
you can see in Figure12.10, extrinsic rewards with “no strings attached” can actually increase motivation.  
a. Controlling or approval rewards  
If extrinsic rewards are used to control or to gain approval, they generally decrease  
motivation. For example, when schools pay all students for simple attendance, or when  
parents give children approval or privileges for achieving good grades, they may  
unintentionally decrease the children's motivation to attend school or to get good grades.  
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b. Informing or “no strings” rewards  
Extrinsic rewards can be motivating if they are used to inform and if there are “no strings”  
attached. For instance, when a small reward is provided for outstanding attendance, or a  
surprise treat is offered for good grades, it may increase both motivation and enjoyment.  
Figure 12.10 How extrinsic rewards can sometimes be motivating  
How does this apply to you and your everyday life? As a college student facing many high-stakes exams, have you noticed  
how often professors try to motivate their students with “scare tactics,” such as frequently reminding you of how your  
overall GP A and/or scores on certain exams may be critical for entry into desirable jobs or for admittance to graduate  
programs? Does this type of extrinsic motivation help or hurt your motivation? One study found that when instructors use  
extrinsic consequences, such as fear tactics, as motivational tools, their students' intrinsic motivation and exam scores  
decrease (Putwain & Remedios, [12.175]; von der Embse et al., [12.210]). In fact, fear of failure may be one of the  
greatest detriments to intrinsic motivation (Covington & Müeller, [12.38]; Ma et al., [12.137]; Martin & Marsh, [12.139]).  
What should teachers and students do instead? Rather than emphasizing high exam scores or overall GPA, researchers  
recommend focusing on specific behaviors required to avoid failure and attain success. In other words, as a student you  
can focus on improving your overall study techniques and test-taking skills. See again the T ools for Student Successat the  
end of Chapter 1. For additional help, check with your professor and/or your college counseling center. For help with  
increasing your overall motivation, see the following Psychology and Y our Professional Success discussion.  
Psychology and Y our Professional SuccessWhat Ar e the Best W ays to Incr ease  
Motivation?  
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are essential for advancing your career, running a business, or even studying this  
text. If you want to improve your effectiveness in any of these areas, consider the following guidelines:  
1.Emphasize intrinsic reasons for behaviors. Rather than thinking about all the people you'll impress with good grades  
or all the great jobs you'll get when you finish college, focus instead on personally satisfying, intrinsic reasons. Think  
about how exciting it is to learn new things, or the value of becoming an educated person and a critical thinker.  
2.Limit extrinsic rewards. In general, it is almost always better to use the least possible extrinsic reward and for the  
shortest possible time period. When children are first learning to play a musical instrument, it may help to provide  
small rewards until they gain a certain level of mastery . But once a child is working happily or practicing for the sheer  
joy of it, it is best to leave him or her alone. Similarly , if you're trying to increase your study time, begin by rewarding  
yourself for every significant improvement. But don't reward yourself when you're handling a difficult assignment  
easily . Save rewards for when you need them. Keep in mind that we're speaking primarily of concrete extrinsic  
rewards. Praise and positive feedback are generally safe to use and often increase intrinsic motivation.  
3.Provide appropriate rewards. Use extrinsic rewards to provide feedback for competency or outstanding performance  
—not for simply engaging in the behavior. Schools can enhance intrinsic motivation by giving medals or privileges to  
students with no absences, rather than giving money for simple attendance. As a manager, you can provide informing,  
“no strings attached” rewards by giving or sharing credit with your employees for worthy accomplishments. On a  
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personal level, treat yourself to a movie or a call to a friend afteryou've studied exceptionally hard for your scheduled  
time period or done particularly well on an exam. Don't reward yourself for half-hearted attempts.  
4.Just do it! W e've mentioned many times the value of distributed practice. Y ou really can't “cram” when it comes to  
workouts, brushing your teeth, losing and maintaining weight, or keeping up with employer demands. Y ou “simply”  
have to get up and get started. Don't think! Just do! The first few minutes of exercise are always the hardest, and the  
same is true for almost every aspect of life. Get up, get started, power through! Y ou'll thank yourself later .  
Y ou have brains in your head. Y ou have feet in your shoes. Y ou can steer yourself in any direction you choose. Y ou're on  
your own, and you know what you know . And you ar e the guy who'll decide where to go.  
—Theodor Seuss Geisel, “Dr . Seuss” (American W riter , Poet, Cartoonist)  
Retrieval Practice 12.2 Motivation and Behavior  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or  
by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe the biological and psychosocial factors in hunger.  
2\.   
Motivation for eating is found ________.  
a. in the stomach  
b. in the ventromedial section of the hypothalamus  
c. throughout the brain  
d. throughout the body  
3\.   
Maria appears to be starving herself and has obviously lost a lot of weight in just a few months. Y ou suspect she might be  
suffering from ________.  
a. anorexia nervosa  
b. bulimia nervosa  
c. obesity phobia  
d. none of these options  
4\.   
The desire to excel, especially in competition with others, is known as ________.  
a. drive-reduction theory  
b. intrinsic motivation  
c. achievement motivation  
d. all these options  
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5\.   
A high school began paying students $5 for each day they attended school. Overall rates of attendance increased in the first  
few weeks and then fell below the original starting point. The most likely reason is that ________.  
a. the students felt going to school wasn't worth $5  
b. money is a secondary reinforcer, not a primary one  
c. extrinsic rewards decreased the intrinsic value of attending school  
d. the students' expectancies changed to fit the situation  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you discovered several factors that influence hunger, such as responding to stimulus cues and eating  
according to the clock, rather than when we are hungry . In Chapter 6 (Learning), you learned about classical conditioning,  
a form of learning that pairs learned environmental cues (stimuli) with reflexive responses (such as hunger or eating). How  
can we use classical conditioning to explain why we start to feel hungry around our usual lunch time each day?  
.  
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12.3 Components and Theories of Emotion  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each learning objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major components and theories of emotion.  
•Defineemotion.  
•Discussemotion's biological, cognitive, and behavioral components.  
•Comparethe three major theories of emotion and the facial-feedback hypothesis.  
Emotions play an essential role in our lives. They color our dreams, memories, and perceptions. And emotion-related psychological problems,  
such as anxiety disorders and mood disorders, are among the most common of all psychological disorders and are major contributors to public  
health problems (de Jonge et al., [12.45]; National Institute of Mental Health, [12.159]; Risal et al., [12.179]). High levels of anger and anxiety  
have even been associated with an increased risk of a heart attack (Buckley et al., [12.32]). But what do we really mean by the term emotion? In  
everyday usage, we use it to describe feeling states; we feel “thrilled” when our political candidate wins an election, “dejected” when our  
candidate loses, and “miserable” when our loved ones reject us. Obviously , what we mean by these terms, and what we personally experience with  
different emotions, can vary greatly among individuals.  
All I want is an education, and I am afraid of no one.  
—Malala Y ousafzai  
Three Components of Emotion  
Psychologists define and study emotion according to three basic components—biological, cognitive, and behavioral(see Figure12.11).  
Figure 12.11 The three components of  
emotion—in action!This politician shows  
his anger in various ways, including his  
red face (biological component), his clear  
appraisal that the reporter's question is  
unfair (cognitive component), and his  
yelling at the reporter and gesturing with  
his hands and arms (behavioral  
components).  
Biological (Arousal) Component  
Internal physical changes occur in our bodies whenever we experience an emotion. Imagine walking alone on a dark street and having someone  
jump from behind a stack of boxes and start running toward you. How would you respond? Like most people, you would probably interpret the  
situation as threatening and would run. Y our predominant emotion, fear, would inspire several physiological reactions, such as increased heart rate  
and blood pressure, perspiration, and goose bumps (piloerection). Such biological reactions are controlled by certain brain structures and by the  
autonomic branch of the nervous system (ANS).  
Our emotional experiences appear to result from interactions between several areas of the brain, particularly the cer ebral cortexand limbic system  
(Klapwijk et al., [12.114]; Meau & V uilleumier, [12.145]; Panksepp, [12.165]). As we discussed in Chapter 2, the cerebral cortex, the outermost  
layer of the brain, serves as our body's ultimate control and information processing center, enabling us to recognize and regulate our emotions.  
Studies of the limbic system, located in the innermost part of the brain, have shown that one area, the amygdala, plays a key role in emotion—  
especially fear (Figure12.12). It sends signals to the other areas of the brain, causing increased heart rate and other physiological reactions related  
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to fear . Interestingly , children with high levels of anxiety tend to have larger amygdalae, as well as stronger connections between the amygdala and  
other parts of the brain (Qin et al., [12.176]).  
Figure 12.12 The limbic system's  
role in emotionIn addition to being  
involved in drive regulation,  
memory , and other functions, the  
limbic system plays a key role in  
the experience and expression of  
our emotions. It consists of several  
subcortical structures that form a  
border (or limbus) around the  
brain stem.  
Emotional arousal sometimes occurs without our conscious awareness. According to psychologist Joseph LeDoux ([12.122], [12.124]), when the  
thalamus(the brain's sensory switchboard) receives sensory inputs, it sends separate messages up to the cortex, which “thinks” about the stimulus,  
and to the amygdala, which immediately activates the body's alarm system (Figure12.13). Although this dual pathway occasionally leads to “false  
alarms,” such as when we mistake a stick for a snake, LeDoux believes it is a highly adaptive warning system essential to our survival. He states  
that “the time saved by the amygdala in acting on the thalamic interpretation, rather than waiting for the cortical input, may be the dif ference  
between life and death” (LeDoux, [12.122], p. 166).  
Figure 12.13 Fast and slow pathways for fearWhen visual sensory input arrives at  
the thalamus, the thalamus sends it along a fast route directly to the amygdala (the  
red arrow), as well as along a slower , more indirect route to the visual cortex (the  
blue arrow). The speedy , direct route allows us to quickly respond to a feared  
stimulus (like the snake) even before we're consciously aware of our emotions or  
behaviors. In contrast, the indirect route, engaging the visual cortex, provides more  
detailed information that allows us to consciously evaluate the danger of this  
particular snake and our most appropriate response.  
As vital as the brain is to emotion, it is the autonomic nervous system(Chapter 2) that produces the obvious signs of arousal. These largely  
automatic responses result from interconnections between the ANS and various glands and muscles (Figure12.14).  
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Figure 12.14 Emotion and the autonomic nervous system  
(ANS)During emotional arousal, the sympathetic branch of the  
autonomic nervous system (ANS) prepares the body for fightflight-freeze. (The hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine  
keep the system under sympathetic control until the emergency  
is over .) The parasympathetic branch returns the body to a  
more relaxed state (homeostasis).  
Cognitive (Thinking) Component  
Emotional reactions are very individual: What you experience as intensely pleasurable may be boring or aversive to another. T o study the  
cognitive (thought) component of emotions, psychologists typically use self-report techniques, such as surveys and interviews. However, people  
are sometimes unable or unwilling to accurately remember or describe their emotional states. For these reasons, our cognitions about our own and  
others' emotions are difficult to measure scientifically . This is why many researchers supplement participants' reports on their emotional  
experiences with methods that assess emotional experience indirectly (e.g., measuring physiological responses such as heart rate, pupil dilation,  
blood flow).  
People who undergo trauma often find it difficult to identify and manage their overwhelming emotions. Fortunately , a new imaging method that  
measures activity within the amygdala may provide help (Keynan et al., [12.113]). Can you see how providing someone with specific cognitive  
feedback on his or her particular level of arousal could help that person manage not only the arousal itself (the emotional component) but also the  
behavioral expression component (next section)?  
Behavioral (Expressive) Component  
In addition to the biological and cognitive components, emotions also have a behavioral component, which can be verbal and/or nonverbal. W e  
can verbally tell people that we love them and/or show them nonverbally through actions, such as gentle touches. However, facial expressions may  
be our most common form of emotional communication. As you'll discover later in this chapter, even newborn infants show distinct expressions of  
emotion that closely match adult facial expressions. Researchers have also developed sensitive techniques to measure subtleties of feeling and to  
differentiate honest expressions from fake ones. Perhaps most intriguing is the difference between the social smileand the Duchenne smile(named  
after French anatomist Duchenne de Boulogne, who first described it in 1862). See Figure12.15. A recent meta-analysis, which combines data  
from numerous studies, found that people with Duchenne smiles are rated as more authentic, genuine, real, attractive, and trustworthy than those  
displaying non-Duchenne smiles (Gunnery & Ruben, [12.90]).  
a. False, social smile  
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b. True Duchenne smile  
Figure 12.15 Duchenne  
smileIn a false, social smile  
(a), our voluntary cheek  
muscles are pulled back, but  
our eyes are unsmiling. Smiles  
of real pleasure use the  
muscles not only around the  
cheeks but also around the eyes  
(b).  
The Duchenne smile illustrates the importance of nonverbal means of communicating emotion. We all know that people communicate in ways  
other than speaking or writing. However, few people recognize the full importance of nonverbal signals (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself The Power of Nonverbal Cues  
Imagine yourself as a job interviewer . Y our first applicant greets you with a big smile, full eye contact, a firm handshake, and an erect, open  
posture. The second applicant doesn't smile, looks down, offers a weak handshake, and slouches. Whom do you think you will hire?  
Psychologist Albert Mehrabian would say that you're much less likely to hire the second applicant due to his or her “mixed messages.”  
Mehrabian's research suggests that when we're communicating feelings or attitudes and our verbal and nonverbal dimensions don't match, the  
receiver trusts the predominant form of communication, which is about 93% nonverbal and consists of the way the words are said and the facial  
expression rather than the literal meaning of the words (Mehrabian, [12.146], [12.147], [12.148]).  
Unfortunately , Mehrabian's research is often overgeneralized, and many people misquote him as saying that “over 90% of communication is  
nonverbal.” Clearly , if a police officer says, “Put your hands up,” his or her verbal words might carry 100% of the meaning. However, when we're  
confronted with a mismatch between verbal and nonverbal communication, it is safe to say that we pay far more attention to the nonverbal because  
we believe it more often tells us what someone is really thinking or feeling. The importance of nonverbal communication, particularly facial  
expressions, is further illustrated by the popularity of smileys and other emoticons in our everyday e-mail and text messages.  
Keep in mind, however, that there are obvious limits to the power of nonverbal cues. For instance, a study of airport security found that agents  
who were trained not only to observe nonverbal cues but also to talk with passengers were more accurate at detecting dishonesty than those who  
only examined body language, such as lack of eye contact, nervousness, and fidgeting (Ormerod & Dando, [12.164]). Given that most of us will  
never serve as airport security personnel, the following Research Challenge offers an even more important warning about an overreliance on  
nonverbal cues.  
Research Challenge Does W earing “Sexy” Clothing Signal Sexual Interest?  
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What do you think of the women in this photo? Do you think those who are wearing “sexier” clothes are more interested in sex than those who are  
dressed more modestly? This is the core question researchers attempted to answer when they sampled 276 female and 220 male college students  
(T reat et al., [12.203]).  
Participants in this study were first presented with photographs of different women and were then asked to express their first thoughts on whether  
the women showed sexual interest or not. T o improve their judgments, half of the participants were given instructions regarding specific nonverbal  
emotional cues (e.g., body language or facial expressions) before seeing the photos.  
Interestingly , the researchers found that when judging the sexual interest of the women in the photographs, both male and female college students  
relied not only on the women's facial expressions and body language but also on the provocativeness of their clothing and their attractiveness.  
Although male and female participants showed similar ratings, the women relied more than the men on women's facial expressions, whereas the  
men relied more on the women's attractiveness.  
Why is this important? Given that appearance-related cues such as clothing and physical beauty are less accurate signals of a woman's current (or  
momentary) sexual interest than her nonverbal emotional cues (facial expression and body language), these results suggest “sexy” clothing may be  
misinterpreted as sexual interest. Even more troubling is that all participants were also asked to complete an assessment about their attitudes  
toward rape, such as: “Rape happens when a man's sex drive gets out of control” or “Being raped isn't as bad as being mugged and beaten.” And  
both male and female students who endorsed more rape-supportive attitudes relative to their peers focused more on women's clothing style and  
attractiveness to judge sexual interest and less on nonverbal cues.  
As you know and as discussed in Chapter 11, rape is a horrific crime with long-lasting physical and psychological effects on the victim. The one  
encouraging note in this study was that participants who received instruction on nonverbal cues before assessing the photographs later paid more  
attention to these cues than to the women's clothing and physical beauty .  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Treat et al., [12.203]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to  
groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elationalresearch, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and  
public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better  
critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Three Major Theories of Emotion  
Researchers generally agree that emotion has biological, cognitive, and behavioral components, but there is less agreement about howwe become  
emotional. The major competing theories are the James-Lange theory, the Cannon-Bard theory, and Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory  
(Step-by-Step Diagram12.2).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 12.2 Comparing Three Major Theories of Emotion  
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This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be  
sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Imagine that you're walking in the forest and suddenly see a coiled snake on the path next to you. What emotion would you experience? Most  
people would say they would be very afraid. But why? Common sense tells us that our hearts pound and we tremble when we're afraid and that we  
cry when we're sad. But according to the James-Lange theory, felt emotions begin with physiological arousal of the ANS (discussed in the  
preceding section). This arousal (a pounding heart, breathlessness, trembling all over) then causes us to experience the emotion we call “fear.”  
Contrary to popular opinion, James wrote: “W e feel sorry because we cry , angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble” (James, [12.107],  
pp. 449–450).  
In contrast, the Cannon-Bard theoryproposes that arousal and emotion occur separately but simultaneously . Following perception of an emotionprovoking stimulus, the thalamus sends two simultaneous messages: one to the ANS, which causes physiological arousal, and one to the brain's  
cortex, which causes awareness of the felt emotion.  
Finally , Schachter and Singer's two-factor theorysuggests that our emotions start with physiological arousal followed by a conscious, cognitive  
appraisal. W e then look to external cues from the environment and from others around us to find a label and explanation for the arousal. Therefore,  
if we cry at a wedding, we label our emotion as joy or happiness. If we cry at a funeral, we label the emotion as sadness.  
In their classic study demonstrating this effect, Schachter and Singer ([12.182]) gave research participants injections of epinephrine (adrenaline), a  
hormone/neurotransmitter that produces feelings of arousal, or saline shots (a placebo) and then exposed the participants to either a happy or an  
angry confederate (Concept Organizer12.1). The way participants responded suggested that arousal could be labeled happiness or anger,  
depending on the context. Thus, Schachter and Singer's research demonstrated that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal  
and cognitive appraisal (labeling).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 12.1 Schachter and Singer's Classic Study  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
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Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory may have several practical implications. Depending on the cues present in our environment, we  
apparently can interpret exactly the same feelings of arousal in very different ways. Research on this type of misattribution of arousalhas had  
intriguing results (e.g., Greenaway et al., [12.87]; Shaked & Clore, 2016). For instance, one study found that female participants rated photos of  
male models as being more attractive when they were told—falsely—that their heart rates increased when they looked at the photos (Jouffre,  
[12.1 10]). The women apparently wrongly attributed their supposedly increased heart rates to feelings of increased attraction to the male model.  
This type of misattribution also explains why , when you're frustrated by something that happened at work or school, you might yell at your family  
or friends. On a more positive note, if you're shy or afraid of public speaking, try interpreting your feelings of nervousness as the result of too  
much coffee or the heating in the room.  
Before going on, we need to add one more approach that helps expand our understanding of our emotional reactions. According to the facialfeedback hypothesis, movements of our facial muscles produce or intensify our subjective experience of emotion (see the following Try This  
Y ourself). More specifically , sensory input (such as seeing a snake) is first routed to subcortical areas of the brain that activate facial movements.  
These facial changes then initiate and intensify emotions (Adelmann & Zajonc, [12.1]; Kulczynski et al., [12.120]; Lamer et al., [12.121]). For  
instance, researchers in one study asked participants to maintain a smile while they were engaging in a stress-inducing task, such as keeping their  
hand in a bucket of very cold ice water (Kraft & Pressman, [12.117]). Compared to participants who held their face in a neutral position, those  
who smiled had lower heart rates, showing that smiling can help reduce the experience of stress—thus supporting the facial-feedback hypothesis.  
Further evidence supporting this hypothesis comes from the cosmetic treatment Botox (see Figure12.16).  
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Figure 12.16 Botox and the  
facial-feedback  
hypothesisInjections of the  
botulinum toxin (Botox) into the  
forehead muscles work well to  
relax frown lines for cosmetic  
purposes, but they also appear to  
reduce depression (Finzi &  
Rosenthal, [12.71]; Maasumi et al.,  
[12.133]; Sifferlin, [12.190]). One  
study found that depression scores  
dropped 42% in Botox patients  
versus 15% for patients who  
received placebo injections (Magid  
et al., [12.135]). Unfortunately ,  
given that Botox injections also  
inhibit our unconscious imitation  
of other's facial expressions, they  
may similarly inhibit our sensitive  
understanding and empathy for  
others. Research shows that this is  
particularly true when the  
expressions of others are subtle  
(Baumeister et al., [12.21], [12.20];  
Sifferlin, [12.190]).  
Try This Y ourself T esting the Facial-Feedback Hypothesis  
Hold a pen or pencil between your teeth with your mouth open. Spend about 30 seconds in this position. How do you feel? According to research,  
pleasant feelings are more likely when teeth are showing than when they are not.  
Source:Based on Strack et al., [12.197].  
Surprisingly , research suggests that even watching another's facial expressions causes an automatic, r eciprocalchange in our own facial muscles  
(Dimberg & Thunberg, [12.52]; Pawling et al., [12.167]; W ood et al., [12.228]). When people are exposed to pictures of angry faces, for example,  
the eyebrow muscles involved in frowning are activated. In contrast, the smile muscles show a significant increase in activity when participants  
are shown photos of a happy face. In follow-up research using the subliminal per ceptiontechniques discussed in Chapter 4, scientists have shown  
that this automatic, matching response occurs even withoutthe participant's attention or conscious awareness (e.g., Dimberg et al., [12.53]).  
This automatic, innate, and generally unconscious imitation of others' facial expressions has several practical applications. Given that the facialfeedback hypothesis suggests that facial expressions can influence moods, you can see how a treatment that prevents frowning might logically  
make someone feel less depressed. It also explains why you might feel depressed after just listening to a friend's problems. In addition, the theory  
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may provide personal insights for therapists who constantly work with depressed clients and for actors who simulate emotions for their livelihood.  
Finally , if you're considering having Botox injections, consider the fact that these treatments may affect your ability to pick up on others' subtle  
facial cues and to properly empathize with their emotions. In everyday social interactions, failing to detect sudden changes in mood or small facial  
expressions can make the difference between successful communication and communication breakdown (Sissa Medialab, [12.191]).  
Evaluating Theories of Emotion  
Which theory of emotion is correct? As you may imagine, each theory has its limits. The James-Lange theoryfails to acknowledge that  
physiological arousal can occur without emotional experience (e.g., when we exercise). Furthermore, this theory requires a distinctly different  
pattern of arousal for each emotion. Otherwise, how do we know whether we are sad, happy , or mad? Positron emission tomography (PET) scans  
of the brain do show subtle differences in the overall physical arousal with basic emotions, such as happiness, fear, and anger (Levenson, [12.127],  
[12.128]; W erner et al., [12.217]). But most people are not aware of these slight variations. Thus, there must be other explanations for how we  
experience emotion.  
The Cannon-Bard theory(that arousal and emotions occur simultaneously and that all emotions are physiologically similar) has received some  
experimental support. Instead of the thalamus, however, other research shows that it is the limbic system, hypothalamus, and prefrontal cortex that  
are activated in emotional experience (Junque, [12.111]; LeDoux, [12.123]; Schulze et al., [12.184]).  
As mentioned earlier, research on the facial-feedback hypothesishas found a distinctive physiological response for emotions such as fear, sadness,  
and anger—thus partially confirming James-Lange's initial position. Facial feedback does seem to contribute to the intensity of our subjective  
emotional experience and our overall moods. So, if you want to change a bad mood or intensify a particularly good emotion, adopt the appropriate  
facial expression. Try smiling when you're sad and expanding your smiles when you're happy .  
Finally , Schachter and Singer's two-factor theoryemphasizes the importance of cognitive labels in emotions. But research shows that some neural  
pathways involved in emotion bypass the cortex and go directly to the limbic system. Recall our earlier example of jumping at the sight of a  
supposed snake and then a second later using the cortex to interpret what it was. This and other evidence suggest that emotions can take place  
without conscious cognitive processes. Thus, emotion is not simply the labeling of arousal.  
In sum, certain basic emotions are associated with subtle differences in arousal. These differences can be produced by changes in facial  
expressions or by organs controlling the autonomic nervous system. In addition, “simple” emotions (fear and anger) do not initially require  
conscious cognitive processes. This allows a quick, automatic emotional response that can later be modified by cortical processes. On the other  
hand, “complex” emotions (jealousy , grief, depression, embarrassment, love) seem to require more extensive cognitive processes.  
Retrieval Practice 12.3 Components and Theories of Emotion  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix  
B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe the three components of emotion.  
2\.   
Y ou feel anxious because you are sweating and your heart is beating rapidly . This statement illustrates the ________theory of emotion.  
a. two-factor  
b. James-Lange  
c. Cannon-Bard  
d. physiological feedback  
3\.   
According to the ________, arousal and emotions occur separately but simultaneously .  
a. Cannon-Bard theory  
b. James-Lange theory  
c. facial-feedback hypothesis  
d. two-factor theory  
4\.   
Schacter and Singer's two factor theory emphasizes the ________component of emotion.  
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a. stimulus-response  
b. physiological  
c. behavioral-imitation  
d. cognitive  
5\.   
Y ou grin broadly while your best friend tells you she was just accepted to medical school. The facial-feedback hypothesis predicts that you will  
feel ________.  
a. happy  
b. envious  
c. angry  
d. all of these emotions  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology  
and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 15 (Therapy), you will discover that empathy, a sensitive understanding and sharing of another's inner experience, is a major  
therapeutic technique among humanistic therapists. In this chapter, you learned about the facial-feedback hypothesis and read about research that  
suggests even watching another's facial expressions causes an automatic, reciprocal change in our own facial muscles. Explain how Botox  
injections might affect a therapist's empathy toward his or her clients.  
.  
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12.4 Experiencing Emotions  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review how emotions affect behavior .  
•Describethe role of culture and evolution in emotion.  
•Discussthe psychosocial factors that influence emotions.  
•Summarizethe problems with using polygraph testing as a lie detector .  
•Discussthe major components of happiness.  
How do culture and evolution affect our emotions? Is the polygraph an effective way to detect lies? Why are some people  
happier than others? Can romantic love survive long-distance relationships? These are just a few of the questions, topics, and  
emotional experiences we'll explore in this section.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Are Emotions Affected by Culture and Evolution?  
Are emotions the same across all cultures? Given the seemingly vast array of emotions within our own culture, it may surprise  
you to learn that some researchers believe that all our feelings can be condensed into a few primary, culturally universal  
emotions (T able12.3). These researchers hold that more complex emotions, such as love, are simply combinations of primary  
emotions with variations in intensity . As you can see in T able 12.3, there is considerable agreement among the theorists, and the  
most recent cross-cultural research (Jack et al., [12.106]) suggests that basic emotions can be combined and reduced to just  
four: happiness, sadness, surprise/fear , and disgust/anger . Regardless of the exact number , researchers generally agree that  
across cultures, the facial expression of certain emotions is interpreted similarly. Thus, a smile is recognized by all as a sign of  
pleasure, whereas a frown is recognized as a sign of displeasure.  
T able12.3Sample Basic Emotions  
(Note the str ong similarities among the various theories and how the last column collapses all emotions into four general  
categories)  
Carroll Izard Paul Ekman and W allace Friesen Silvan T omkins Robert Plutchik Rachael Jack et al.  
Fear          Fear    Fear    Fear    Surprise/fear  
Anger          Anger    Anger    Anger    Disgust/anger  
Disgust          Disgust    Disgust    Disgust    Disgust/anger  
Surprise          Surprise    Surprise    Surprise    Surprise/fear  
Sadness          Sadness    —    Sadness    Sadness  
Joy          Happiness    Enjoyment    Joy    Happiness  
Shame          —    Shame    —  
Contempt          Contempt    Contempt    —  
Interest          —    Interest    Anticipation  
Guilt          —    —    —  
—          —    —    Acceptance  
—          —    Distress    —  
From an evolutionary perspective, the idea of universal facial expressions makes adaptive sense because such expressions  
signal others about our current emotional state (A wasthi & Mandal, [12.14]; Ekman & Keltner, [12.62]; Hwang & Matsumoto,  
[12.105]). Charles Darwin first advanced the evolutionary theory of emotion in 1872. He proposed that expression of emotions  
evolved in different species as a part of survival and natural selection. For example, expressions of fear help other human and  
nonhuman animals avoid danger, whereas expressions of anger and aggression are useful when fighting for mates or resources.  
Modern evolutionary theory suggests that emotions originate in the limbic system. Given that higher brain areas like the cortex  
developed later than the subcortical limbic system, evolutionary theory proposes that emotions evolved before thought.  
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Studies with infants provide further support for an evolutionary basis for emotions. Interestingly, infants only a few hours old  
show distinct expressions of emotion that closely match adult facial expressions, and by the age of 7 months they can reliably  
interpret and recognize emotional information across both face and voice (Cole & Moore, [12.36]; Jessen & Grossman,  
[12.108]; Meltzoff & Moore, [12.150], [12.151]). And all infants, even those who are born deaf and blind, show similar facial  
expressions in similar situations (Denmark et al., [12.46]; Field et al., [12.70]; Gelder et al., [12.81]). In addition, a study  
showed that families may have characteristic facial expressions, shared even by family members who have been blind from  
birth (Peleg et al., [12.170]). This collective evidence points to a strong biological, evolutionary basis for emotional expression  
and decoding.  
Even though we may all share similar facial expressions for some emotions, each culture has its own display rules(see the T ry  
This Y ourself) that govern how , when, and where to express these emotions (de Gelder & Huis, [12.44]; Ekman, [12.60],  
[12.61]; Schug et al., [12.183]).  
Try This Y ourself Understanding Cultural Display Rules  
How do we learn when, where, and how our emotions should be appropriately expressed? Parents and other adults pass along  
their culture's specific emotional display rulesto children by responding negatively or ignoring some emotions and being  
supportive and sympathetic to others.  
Public physical contact is also governed by display rules. Did you know that Americans, Europeans, and Asians are less likely  
than people in other cultures to touch one another and that only the closest family members and friends might hug in greeting or  
farewell? In contrast, Latin Americans and Middle Easterners often kiss, embrace, and hold hands as a sign of casual friendship  
(Axtell, [12.15]). In fact, some Middle Eastern men commonly greet one another with a kiss (as shown in the photo). Can you  
imagine this same behavior among men in the United States, who generally just shake hands or pat one another's shoulders?  
Keep these cultural differences in mind when you're traveling. The “thumbs up” gesture is widely used in America to mean  
everything is okay or to show the desire to hitch a ride. However, in many Middle Eastern countries, the same gesture is similar  
to an American's raised middle finger!  
T est Y ourself  
Using this list of emotions, try to identify the specific emotion reflected in each of the infant faces. Do you agree that disgust  
and anger look the same and that surprise and fear look the same?  
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Answers:From left to right (top row) = fear, sadness, anger , (bottom row) = surprise, joy/happiness, disgust.  
Psychosocial Factors and Emotion  
In addition to culture and evolution, psychosocial factors also clearly affect our emotions and their expression. For example,  
research shows that college football victories in the two weeks before gubernatorial elections can add three to four percentage  
points to the incumbent party vote (Lee et al., [12.125]). These researchers concluded that the football victories increased  
voters' happiness and well-being, which apparently spread to their current governor and thereby affected their voting behaviors.  
Other research has shown that our emotions are sometimes contagious! To test the hypothesis that certain emotions might  
spread through social media, researchers first evaluated both positive and negative emotions conveyed in Facebook posts  
(Coviello et al., [12.37]). Then, they compared the frequency of these emotional expressions with the amount of rainfall in each  
poster's city . As you might expect, people tend to post more negative emotions and fewer positive emotions on rainy days. The  
researchers then examined how one person's Facebook post could impact the mood expressions posted by his or her friends  
living in other cities. They found that having a friend post something negative on Facebook increases the probability of writing  
a negative post and decreases the likelihood of a positive post.  
In short, emotions are much more complex than originally thought. Culture, evolution, the environment, other people, gender,  
family background, norms, and individual differences all influence our emotions and their expression (Gendron et al., [12.82];  
Hsu, [12.100]; Hwang & Matsumoto, [12.105]).  
The Polygraph as a Lie Detector  
Let's now we turn our attention to one of the hottest, and most controversial, topics in emotion research—the polygraph. The  
polygraph is a machine that measures physiological indicators (such as heart rate and blood pressure) to detect emotional  
arousal, which supposedly reflects whether or not you are lying. Traditional polygraph tests are based on the assumption that  
when people lie, they feel stressed, and that this stress can be measured. As you can see in Figure12.17, during a polygraph  
test multiple (poly) signals from special sensors assess four major indicators of stress and autonomic arousal: heart rate (pulse),  
blood pressure, respiration (breathing) rate, and perspiration (or skin conductivity). If the participant's bodily responses  
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significantly increase when responding to key questions, the examiner will infer that the participant is lying (Ginton, [12.83];  
Grubin, [12.89]; Meijer & V erschuere, [12.86]).  
a. Polygraph testing  
During a standard polygraph test, a band around  
the person's chest measures breathing rate, a cuff  
monitors blood pressure, and finger electrodes  
measure sweating, or galvanic skin response  
(GSR).  
b. Guilty knowledge questions  
Note how the GSR rises sharply in response to  
the question, “Have you ever taken money from  
this bank?”  
Figure 12.17 Lie detecting or simple arousal?  
Polygraph testing is based on the assumption that  
when we lie, we feel guilty, fearful, or anxious.  
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Can you imagine what problems might be associated with the polygraph? First, many people become stressed even when telling  
the truth, whereas others can conceal their stress and remain calm when deliberately lying. Second, emotions cause  
physiological arousal, and a polygraph cannot tell which emotion is being felt (anxiety, irritation, excitement, or any other  
emotion). For this reason, some have suggested the polygraph should be relabeled as an “arousal detector.” In fact, people can  
be trained to beat a lie detector (Kaste, [12.112]; W ollan, [12.227]). When asked a general, control question (“Where do you  
live?”), participants wishing to mislead the examiner can artificially raise their arousal levels by imagining their worst fears  
(being burned to death or buried alive). Then when asked relevant/guilty knowledge questions (“Did you rob the bank?”), they  
can calm themselves by practicing meditation tricks (imagining themselves relaxing on a beach).  
In response to these and other problems, countless research hours and millions of dollars have been spent on new and improved  
lie-detection techniques. Although most people (including many police officers) believe that nonverbal cues—such as gaze  
aversion and increased movement—are indicative of deception, there is limited support for these beliefs (Bogaard et al.,  
[12.29]). Perhaps the most promising method for lie detection is the use of brain scans, like functional magnetic r esonance  
imaging (fMRI)(Farah et al., [12.67]; Jiang et al., [12.109]). Unfortunately , though, all lie-detection techniques have potential  
problems. Researchers have questioned their application, reliability, and validity , while civil libertarians and judicial scholars  
raise doubts about their ethics and legality (Lilienfeld et al., [12.130]; V rij & Fisher , [12.21 1]; Zaitsu, [12.231]). While research  
on improved methods for lie detection continues, note that most courts do not accept polygraph test results, laws have been  
passed to restrict their use, and we should remain skeptical of their ability to detect guilt or innocence (Granhag et al., [12.86];  
Handler et al., [12.94]; T omash & Reed, [12.202]).  
The Psychology of Happiness  
What emotion is most important for your overall life satisfaction? If you said “happiness,” you're on the right track. Does  
money buy happiness? Although some people do report wanting to be wealthy, research around the world repeatedly finds that  
once we have enough money to meet our basic needs for comfort and security , additional funds fail to significantly increase our  
level of happiness (Diener & Biswas-Diener, [12.47], [12.48]; W ang et al., [12.212]; Whillans et al., [12.218]). In short, more is  
not always better . As a case in point, America, the wealthiest nation in the world, ranked 13th out of 157 nations on happiness  
(Pullella, 2016). This report measures things like per capita gross domestic product (GDP), social support, and healthy years of  
life expectancy .  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessAr e Ther e Resear ch-Based Secr ets to  
Happiness?  
If we're chasing the wrong things and money can't buy happiness, what can we do? Here are five research-based suggestions:  
1.Build and maintain close relationships. One of the most consistent findings in positive psychology is that other people  
make us happy (see the photo). While building and maintaining long-term relationships typically improve our overall  
happiness and well-being, even just talking with strangers leads to higher levels of happiness (Diener & Tay , [12.49];  
Galinha et al., [12.77]; Gander et al., [12.78]). Researchers who asked riders on trains and buses either to quietly sit alone or  
to talk to a stranger found that those who talked to a stranger reported more positive feelings than those who sat alone  
(Epley & Schroeder , [12.64]). Furthermore, positive social interactions with others increase our overall relationship  
satisfaction (O'Connell et al., [12.163]). Social acceptance and social connectedness are particularly vital to adolescents'  
well-being (Arslan, [12.11]; Y ou et al., [12.230]).  
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In short, powerful evidence suggests that forming and maintaining human connections are significant predictors of  
happiness. This even applies to nonhuman animals. As you might expect, the stress levels of dogs admitted to animal  
shelters is high. However , just 15 minutes of human interaction and petting can significantly reduce the dogs' cortisol levels,  
which as you recall from Chapter 3 is a common and reliable measure of stress (Willen et al., [12.220]).  
2.Express gratitude. Consider the striking effects of this experiment. Participants were first randomly assigned to one of  
three groups, and then simply asked to write down:  
•“Five things you're grateful for in your life over the last week.” The lists of participants in this first group included such  
things as God, kindness from friends, and the Rolling Stones. (Group 1: Gratitude condition.)  
•“Five daily hassles from the last week.” Participants in this second group listed items like too many bills to pay, trouble  
finding parking, and a messy kitchen. (Group 2: Hassles condition.)  
•“Five events that occurred in the last week.” This group's list included events such as attending a music festival,  
learning CPR, and cleaning out a closet. (Group 3: Events condition.)  
Before the experiment started, all participants kept daily journals recording their moods, physical health, and general  
attitudes, which the researchers later used to compare how people in these three groups changed over time (Emmons &  
McCullough, [12.63]).  
As you might have expected, participants in the gratitude condition reported feeling happier. In fact, they were 25% happier  
from this very simple assignment! Likewise, they were more optimistic about the future and felt better about their lives.  
What was unexpected was that this group did almost 1.5 hours more exercise a week than those in the hassles or events  
condition and had fewer symptoms of illness.  
Further evidence of a positive link between gratitude and happiness comes from studies showing that developing and  
expressing gratitude are linked with reduced cardiac risk and fewer depression and anxiety symptoms, as well as with  
improved relationships with others and a less critical and more compassionate relationship with yourself (Mills et al.,  
[12.153]; Petrocchi & Couyoumdjian, [12.172]). Keep in mind that your everyday expressions of gratitude can be very  
small. Simply thanking people who have helped us or given us good service at a restaurant, or writing down three things we  
are grateful for each night before going to bed, can have a substantial positive impact on our well-being, happiness, and life  
satisfaction (see photo of Malala and her father).  
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Malala Y ousafzai—a model of gratitude  
Malala's father, Ziauddin Y ousafzai, says she is very grateful for the chance to pursue her life goals. This gratitude and her  
incredible courage set an example for all of us of the importance of standing up for what is right.  
3.Change your behavior. As you discovered in Chapters 3 and 5, getting enough exercise and sleep and spending time in  
nature all help make us feel better (Panza et al., [12.166]; Song et al., [12.194]; W assing et al., [12.214]). Surprisingly ,  
research shows that simply reading a book you love increases happiness (Berns et al., [12.25]). Reading apparently helps us  
feel connected to characters in a book, which in turn helps us feel connected with other people. Reading also can increase  
positive feelings, especially if the book inspires you to think about your own life in a new way or to take action toward  
reaching your own goals. So grab a book you find personally enjoyable (not one you “should read”). Then make a point of  
reading every day—a few minutes before bed, on a lunch break, or during your daily commute on public transportation.  
Another easy behavioral change that will increase your happiness is to act happy! Research shows that just changing your  
voice to a happier tone actually increases happiness (Aucouturier et al., [12.13]). In addition, as you discovered earlier in  
this chapter with the facial-feedback hypothesis, simply holding a pencil between your teeth (to force a simulated smile)  
increases pleasant feelings.  
4.Spend your money and time wisely . People who spend money on life experiences—doing things—show greater enduring  
happiness than those who spend money buying material possessions—having things. Spending money on tickets to the “big  
game,” a Broadway show , or a fabulous trip is a great way to increase happiness. In contrast, the pleasure we get from  
spending money on an expensive car, watch, or shoes is limited and momentary .  
Why? One factor is anticipation. It's more enjoyable to anticipate experiences than to anticipate acquiring possessions. The  
pleasure we get from looking forward to a two-week trip is substantially greater than the pleasure we get from anticipating  
buying a new car . Another explanation is that we're far more likely to share experiences with others, whereas we generally  
acquire material possessions for solo use.  
A second way to spend your money wisely is to share it with others! Research shows that giving to others and performing  
acts of kindness and service are powerful ways to increase happiness (Aknin et al., [12.2]; Nelson et al., [12.162]).  
Just as it's critical to spend money wisely , the same is true about time. In fact, the two are often inseparable—money is  
simply something you trade your life energy for (Robin et al., [12.180]). If you're currently making $10 an hour and you're  
considering buying a new iPhone for $650, calculate the real time/money cost. Are you willing to work 65 hours for that  
new phone? Really?  
5.Choose and pursue worthy goals. This final tip for increasing happiness involves making a list of your most personally  
valuable and worthy goals and the specific things you want to accomplish—daily and long-term. As a college student you  
may be finding it hard to even choose your major, much less your most valuable and worthy goals. But just knowing that  
having a college degree is critical to most jobs today is enough as a beginning goal and as a motivator to study and stay in  
school. When thinking about your college major or lifetime goals, consider your most passionate and enjoyable personal  
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interests. What television programs or podcasts do you naturally enjoy? What do you do in your spare time? This type of  
self-inquiry may give you insights into your personal passions and possible careers.  
Remember that a growth mindset and grit (passion and perseverance) are key to long term success. Note, however, that  
pursuing happiness (or money) for its own sake can backfire! Have you heard about people who win the lottery and later  
become less happy and satisfied? This type of adaptation-level phenomenonreflects the fact that we tend to judge a new  
situation or stimuli relative to a neutral level defined by our previous experiences. W e win the lottery or get a new job with  
a higher income and naturally experience an initial surge of pleasure. W e then adjust our neutral level higher, which, in turn,  
requires ever-increasing improvements to gain a similar increase in happiness.  
In other words, happiness, like all emotions, is fleeting, and it's incredibly difficult to go backwards. This so-called hedonic  
tr eadmillshows us that the pleasures we acquire in all parts of our lives—money , material possessions, status, and even our  
relationships—can quickly become part of our everyday baseline and taken for granted—until they're taken away. Can you  
see how the previous tips on this list—building and maintaining close relationships, expressing gratitude, changing your  
behavior, and spending your time and money wisely—can help offset the dangers of this adaptation?  
Y ou can only become truly accomplished at something you love. Don't make money your goal. Instead, pursue the things you  
love doing, and then do them so well that people can't take their eyes off you .  
—Maya Angelou (American Poet, Author , Dancer)  
Retrieval Practice 12.4 Experiencing Emotions  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by  
looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
According to evolutionary theory, basic emotions, like fear and anger , seem to originate in ________.  
a. higher cortical areas of the brain  
b. subtle changes in facial expressions  
c. the limbic system  
d. the interpretation of environmental stimuli  
2\.   
What are display rules?  
3\.   
Which of the following is(are) recommended for increasing happiness?  
a. Express gratitude.  
b. Spend your money and time wisely .  
c. Choose worthy goals.  
d. All of these options.  
4\.   
The polygraph, or lie detector, measures primarily the ________component of emotions.  
a. physiological  
b. articulatory  
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c. cognitive  
d. subjective  
5\.   
Which of the following is TRUE about the polygraph?  
a. It does in fact measure physiological arousal.  
b. It cannot tell which emotion is being felt.  
c. People can be trained to beat a polygraph.  
d. All of these options are true.  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the  
subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 8 (Thinking, Language, and Intelligence), we discussed decision making from a cognitive perspective, using  
algorithms and heuristics. In this chapter, you learned about the cognitive component of emotions, as well as the biological and  
behavioral components. Explain how emotions can function as a type of heuristic in making daily decisions.


	13. Chapter 13

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13.1 Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major concepts of psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theories of personality.  
•Definepersonality .  
•Reviewthe major concepts of Freud's psychoanalytic theory .  
•Comparepsychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories of personality .  
•Discussthe major criticisms of psychoanalytic theories.  
Before we begin our journey through the various theories of personality, note that not all psychologists agree about exactly what personality  
includes. Many psychologists consider temperament and character to be vital aspects of personality . However , others believe personality is  
not equivalent to temperament, which refers to our innate disposition or behavioral style and typical emotional response. (Recall from  
Chapter 10 that there are three main categories of temperament—easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up.) Nor is it the same as character, which  
refers to value judgments about an individual's morals, values, and ethical behaviors, such as honesty , integrity , and kindness.  
Throughout this chapter and this text, then, we will separate our discussion of personality from temperament and character, and rely on this  
widely accepted definition of personality: our unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions. In other words,  
personality describes how we are different from other people and what patterns of behavior are typical of us. Just as the words intr oversion  
and conscientiousnesscan be used to characterize Abraham Lincoln's personality , each of us has terms that can be used to describe our  
unique personalities.  
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory  
One of the earliest theories of personality was Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic perspective, which emphasized unconscious processes and  
unresolved past conflicts. W orking from about 1890 until he died in 1939, Freud developed a theory of personality that has been one of the  
most influential—and controversial—theories in all of science (Bornstein & Huprich, [13.20]; Carducci, [13.34]; Elliott & Prager, [13.58]).  
Let's examine some of Freud's most basic and debatable concepts.  
Levels of Consciousness  
Freud called the mind the “psyche” and asserted that it contains three levels of consciousness, or awareness: the conscious, the  
preconscious, and the unconscious(Figure13.1). For Freud, the unconscious is all-important because it serves as a reservoir that stores our  
largely unacceptable thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information. It lies beneath our conscious awareness. However, its contents  
supposedly have an enormous impact on personality development—like the hidden part of the iceberg that sunk the ocean liner T itanic.  
Figure 13.1 Freud's three levels of  
consciousnessAlthough Freud never  
used this analogy , his levels of  
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awareness are often compared to an  
iceberg:  
•The tip of the iceberg would be  
analogous to the consciousmind—  
above the water and easily  
inspected.  
•The preconsciousmind (shallowly  
submerged) contains information  
available with a little extra effort.  
•The large base of the iceberg is  
somewhat like the unconscious,  
completely hidden from personal  
inspection.  
Interestingly , because many of our unconscious thoughts and motives are unacceptable and threatening, Freud believed that they are  
normally r epr essed(held out of awareness)—unless they are unintentionally revealed by dreams or slips of the tongue, later called Freudian  
slips(Figure13.2).  
Figure 13.2 Freudian slipsFreud believed that a  
small slip of the tongue (now known as a Freudian  
slip) can reflect unconscious feelings that we  
normally keep hidden.  
Personality Structure  
In addition to the mind's three levels of consciousness, Freud also believed our personalities are composed of three mental structures: the id,  
ego, and super ego(Figure13.3).  
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Figure 13.3 Freud's personality  
structureAccording to Freud, personality is  
composed of three structures—the id, ego, and  
superego. Note how the ego is primarily  
conscious and preconscious, whereas the id is  
entirely unconscious.  
According to Freud, the idis present at birth, completely unconscious, and focused on meeting basic drives, such as hunger, sex, and  
aggression. It is immature, impulsive, and irrational. When its primitive drives build up, the id seeks immediate gratification—a concept  
known as the pleasure principle. The id is like a newborn baby: It wants what it wants when it wants it!  
As children develop, they discover they cannot act on their every impulse—grabbing others' candy or shoving them off the swing set. In  
response, the second personality structure, the ego, develops to deal with the real world. The ego is somewhat conscious and serves as the  
“executive” responsible for planning, problem solving, and controlling the potentially destructive energy of the id in ways that are  
compatible with the external world. Thus, the ego is responsible for delaying gratification when necessary. (Be careful not to confuse this  
Freudian personality structure with the more common usage of the term “ego”—meaning a person's sense of self-esteem or selfimportance.)  
The final part of the psyche to develop is the superego, which serves as the center of morality . It provides internalized ideals and standards  
for judgment, and is often referred to as the “conscience.” When thinking about having sex, the superego might warn, “only when you're  
married,” whereas the id would demand it “right now.” T rying to meet the demands of both the id and superego, the ego might say , “let's  
practice safe sex in a committed relationship.”  
Defense Mechanisms  
As you can see, the “morality” demands of the superego often conflict with the “infantile” needs and drives of the id. When the ego fails to  
satisfy both the id and the superego, anxiety slips into conscious awareness. Because anxiety is uncomfortable, Freud believed we avoid it  
through defense mechanisms, strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety . Although defense mechanisms do help relieve the conflict-created  
anxiety , they distort reality and may increase self-deception. Figure13.4 explains how this can happen with the defense mechanisms of  
intellectualization and rationalization. Freud also identified several other defense mechanisms, which are defined and illustrated in Table 3.3  
in Chapter 3.  
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a. Advantages  
Freud believed defense mechanisms help us deal  
with unconscious conflicts, which explains why  
these physicians may intellectualizeand distance  
themselves from the gruesome aspects of their work  
to avoid personal anxieties. Defense mechanisms can  
be healthy and helpful if we use them in moderation  
or on a temporary basis.  
b. Disadvantages  
Unfortunately , defense mechanisms generally distort  
reality , and they create some of our most dangerous  
habits through a vicious self-reinforcing cycle. An  
alcoholic who uses his paycheck to buy drinks may  
feel very guilty , but he can easily reduce this conflict  
by rationalizingthat he deserves to relax and unwind  
with alcohol because he works so hard.  
Figure 13.4 Defense mechanisms in action  
Psychosexual Stages  
Although defense mechanisms are now an accepted part of modern psychology, other Freudian ideas are more controversial (Boag, [13.18];  
Breger, [13.25]). For example, according to Freud, strong biological urges residing within the id push all children through five universal  
psychosexual stages(Step-by-Step Diagram13.1). The term psychosexualreflects Freud's belief that children experience sexual feelings  
from birth (in different forms from those experienced by adolescents and adults). Each of the five psychosexual stages is named for the type  
of sexual pleasure that supposedly characterizes the stage—for instance, the oral phase is named for the mouth, the key erogenous zone  
during infancy .  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 13.1 Freud's Five Psychosexual Stages of Development  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
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According to Freud, at each psychosexual stage the id's impulses come into conflict with social demands. Furthermore, if a child's needs are  
not met, or are overindulged, at one particular stage, the child supposedly may fixate, and a part of his or her personality will remain stuck  
at that stage. Freud believed most individuals successfully pass through each of the five stages. But during stressful times, they may return  
(or r egr ess) to an earlier stage in which prior needs were badly frustrated or overgratified.  
1.Oral stage(birth to 18 months) During this period, an infant receives satisfaction through sucking, eating, biting, and so on. Because  
the infant is highly dependent on parents and other caregivers to provide opportunities for oral gratification, fixation at this stage can  
easily occur . If caregivers overindulge an infant's oral needs, the child may fixate and as an adult become gullible (“swallowing”  
anything), dependent, and passive. The underindulged child, however, will develop into an aggressive, sadistic person who exploits  
others. According to Freud, orally fixated adults often orient their life around their mouth—chewing their nails, smoking cigarettes,  
overeating, becoming alcoholics, or talking a great deal.  
2.Anal stage(18 to 36 months) Once the child becomes a toddler, his or her erogenous zone shifts to the anus. The child supposedly  
receives satisfaction by having and retaining bowel movements. Because this is the time when most parents begin toilet training, the  
child's desire to control his or her own bowel movements often leads to strong conflict. Adults who are fixated at this stage, in Freud's  
view , may develop an anal-retentivepersonality and be highly controlled and compulsively neat. Or they may be very messy, disorderly ,  
rebellious, and destructive—the so-called anal-expulsivepersonality .  
3.Phallic stage(3 to 6 years) During the phallic stage, the major center of pleasure is the genitals. Masturbation and “playing doctor”  
with other children are common during this time. According to Freud, a 3- to 6-year-old boy also develops an unconscious sexual  
longing for his mother and jealousy and hatred for the rival father . This attraction creates a conflict Freud called the Oedipus complex,  
named after Oedipus, the legendary Greek king who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother . The young boy reportedly  
experiences guilt and fear that his father will punish him for his feelings, perhaps by cutting off his penis—so-called castration anxiety.  
If this stage is not resolved completely or positively , or the child fixates at this stage, the boy grows up resenting his father and  
generalizes this feeling to all authority figures.  
What happens with little girls? Because a girl does not have a penis, she does not fear castration and fails to fully complete this stage  
and move on to successful identification with her mother . According to Freud, she develops penis envyand fails to develop an adequate  
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superego, which Freud believed resulted in women being morally inferior to men. (Y ou are undoubtedly surprised or outraged by this  
statement, but remember that Freud was a product of his time. Sexism was common at this point in history. And most modern  
psychodynamic theorists reject Freud's notion of penis envy , as we will see in the next section.)  
4.Latency period(6 years to puberty) Following the phallic stage, children supposedly repress sexual thoughts and engage in nonsexual  
activities, such as developing social and intellectual skills. The task of this stage is to develop successful interactions with same-sex  
peers and refine appropriate gender roles.  
5.Genital stage(puberty to adulthood) W ith the beginning of adolescence, the genitals are again erogenous zones. Freud automatically  
assumed heterosexuality and believed adolescents seek to fulfill their sexual desires through emotional attachment to members of the  
opposite sex. Unsuccessful outcomes at this stage lead to participation in sexual relationships based only on lustful desires, not on  
respect and commitment.  
Freud and Modern W estern Culture  
Before going on, keep in mind that many of Freud's terms and concepts have been heavily criticized and are not widely accepted in modern,  
scientific psychology—particularly his psychosexual stages of development. However, we discuss them here because words like id, ego,  
super ego, anal-retentive, and Oedipus complexremain in common, everyday usage as part of our culture. In fact, Freud's impact on W estern  
intellectual history cannot be overstated. His wide-ranging and revolutionary ideas attempted to explain dreams, religion, social groupings,  
family dynamics, neurosis, psychosis, humor, the arts, and literature. Y ou need to be aware of Freud's major ideas, as well as of the  
criticisms that will be further discussed later .  
Neo-Freudians and the Psychodynamic Perspective  
Some initial followers of Freud later extended his theories, often in social and cultural directions. They became known as neo-Freudians, or  
“new” Freudians. These theorists accepted most of Freud's basic ideas, such as the id, ego, superego, and defense mechanisms, but broke  
away for various reasons.  
Alfred Adler  
As one of the first to leave Freud's inner circle, Alfred Adler (1870–1937) believed behavior is purposeful and goal directed, instead of  
being motivated by unconscious forces. According to his individual psychology, we are motivated by our goals in life—especially our goals  
of obtaining security and overcoming feelings of inferiority (Carlson & Englar-Carlson, [13.36]).  
Adler believed that almost all of us suffer from an inferiority complex, or deep feelings of inadequacy and incompetence that arise from our  
feelings of helplessness as infants (Adler, [13.3]). According to Adler , these early feelings result in a “will-to-power” that can take one of  
two paths. It can lead children to strive to develop superiority over others through dominance, aggression, or expressions of envy . Or , on a  
more positive note, it can encourage them to develop their full potential and creativity and to gain mastery and control of their lives (Figure  
13.5).  
Figure 13.5 An upside to feelings of inferiority?Adler  
suggested that the will-to-power could be positively  
expressed through social interest—by identifying with  
others and cooperating with them for the social good.  
Can you explain how these volunteers might be fulfilling  
their will-to-power interest?  
Carl Jung  
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Another early Freud follower turned dissenter, Carl Jung (1875–1961), developed analytical psychology. Like Freud, Jung (pronounced  
“Y oong”) emphasized unconscious processes, but he believed that the unconscious contains positive and spiritual motives as well as sexual  
and aggressive forces.  
Jung also thought that we have two forms of the unconscious mind: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal  
unconsciousis created from our individual experiences, whereas the collective unconsciousis identical in all of us and is inherited (Jung,  
[13.92], [13.93]). The collective unconscious consists of primitive images and patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior that Jung called  
archetypes(Figure13.6).  
Figure 13.6 Archetypes in the collective unconscious?  
According to Jung, the collective unconscious is the  
ancestral memory of the human race. This may explain  
common similarities in religion, art, and dream imagery  
across cultures, such as the repeated symbol of the snake  
in this ancient Egyptian tomb painting. Can you think of  
other explanations, such as the fact that snakes pose an  
evolutionary danger across time and cultures?  
Because of archetypal patterns in the collective unconscious, we supposedly perceive and react in certain predictable ways. One set of  
archetypes refers to gender roles (Chapter 9). Jung claimed that both males and females have patterns for feminine aspects of personality—  
anima—and masculine aspects of personality—animus—which allow us to express both masculine and feminine personality traits and to  
understand the opposite sex.  
Karen Horney  
Like Adler and Jung, psychoanalyst Karen Horney [HORN-eye] (1885–1952) was an influential follower of Freud who later came to reject  
major aspects of Freudian theory. She is credited with having developed a creative blend of Freudian, Adlerian, and Jungian theory , along  
with the first feminist critique of Freud's theory (Horney, [13.82], [13.83]). She also emphasized women's positive traits and suggested that  
most of Freud's ideas about female personality reflected male bias and misunderstanding. As an example, Horney proposed that women's  
everyday experience with social inferiority led to power envy , not to Freud's idea of biological penis envy.  
Horney also believed personality development depends largely on social relationships—particularly the one between parent and child. She  
believed that when a child's needs are not met by nurturing parents, the child may develop lasting feelings of helplessness and insecurity.  
The way people respond to this basic anxiety, in Horney's view , sets the stage for later adult psychological health. She believed that  
everyone copes with this basic anxiety in one of three ways—we move toward, away from, or against other people—and that psychological  
health requires a balance among these three styles.  
In sum, Horney proposed that our adult personalities are shaped by our childhood relationships with our parents—not by fixation or  
regression at some stage of psychosexual development, as Freud argued.  
Keep in mind that most of the major ideas of Adler, Jung, and Horney , along with concepts from other key figures such as Erik Erikson  
(Chapter 10), have evolved into the modern psychodynamic perspectivedescribed in Chapter 15. In contrast to the traditional Freudian  
focus on the id, ego, superego, and psychosexual stages, psychodynamic theorists emphasize the dynamicrelations between conscious and  
unconscious processes and current problems (Barber & Solomonov , [13.12]; Beail, [13.14]).  
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories  
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Let's consider the major criticisms of Freud's psychoanalytic theories (Carducci, [13.34]; Gagnepain et al., [13.63]; Tummala-Narra,  
[13.158]):  
•Inadequate empirical support Many psychoanalytic concepts—such as the psychosexual stages—cannot be empirically tested.  
•Overemphasis on sexuality, biology , and unconscious forces Modern psychologists believe Freud underestimated the role of learning  
and evolution in shaping personality (Figure13.7).  
Figure 13.7 Oral fixation or  
simple self-soothing?Is this an  
example of Freud's earliest  
stage of psychosexual  
development or just a part of all  
infants' normal sucking  
behaviors?  
•Sexism Beginning with Karen Horney , many psychologists have rejected Freud's theories as derogatory toward women.  
Despite claims of inadequate empirical support, there is reliable evidence for certain psychoanalytic concepts, such as defense mechanisms  
and the belief that a lot of our information processing occurs outside our conscious awareness (automatic processing, Chapter 5, and  
implicit memories, Chapter 7).  
In addition, people who identify as having a heterosexual orientation, but show a strong sexual attraction to same-sex people in  
psychological tests, tend to show more sexual prejudice and higher levels of hostility toward gay people (W einstein et al., [13.165]). Can  
you see how Freud's theory might suggest that these negative attitudes and beliefs spring from unconscious repression of same-sex desires?  
Finally , many contemporary clinicians still value Freud's insights about childhood experiences and unconscious influences on personality  
development (de T ychey et al., [13.52]; Sand, [13.141]; Schimmel, [13.144]).  
T o sum up, Freud was clearly wrong on many counts. However, he still ranks as one of the giants of psychology . Furthermore, it's easy to  
criticize Freud if you don't remember that he began his work at the start of the twentieth century and lacked the benefit of modern research  
findings and technology . W e can only imagine how our current theories will look 100 years from now . Right or wrong, Freud has earned a  
lasting place among the pioneers in psychology .  
Retrieval Practice 13.1 Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Define personality.  
2\.   
In Freudian terms, the ________seeks immediate gratification. The ________is the “executive” that deals with the demands of reality , and  
the ________is the center of morality that provides standards for judgment.  
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a. psyche, ego, id  
b. id, ego, superego  
c. conscious, preconscious, unconscious  
d. oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage  
3\.   
According to Freud, when anxiety slips into our conscious awareness, we often avoid it through the use of ________.  
a. latency overcompensation  
b. the Oedipus complex  
c. regression to the oral stage  
d. defense mechanisms  
4\.   
During the ________phase, the Oedipus complex is reportedly the major conflict in psychosexual development.  
a. oral  
b. latent  
c. phallic  
d. genital  
5\.   
Three of the most influential neo-Freudians were ________.  
a. Plato, Aristotle, and Descartes  
b. Dr. Laura, Dr . Phil, and Dr . Ruth  
c. Adler, Jung, and Horney  
d. None of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 14 (Psychological Disorders), you will learn about personality disorders(such as borderlineand antisocial personality  
disorders). Using what you have learned about personality(general definition), explain how personality could become disordered or cause  
problems.  
.  
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13.2 Trait Theories  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major concepts of the various trait theories.  
•Explainhow early trait theorists approached the study of personality .  
•Describethe Big Five personality traits.  
•Summarizethe major contributions and criticisms of trait theory .  
When describing another's personality, we generally use terms that refer to that person's most typical and  
distinctive characteristics. As we mentioned earlier, Abraham Lincoln is remembered today in part for his  
distinctive characteristics of introversion and conscientiousness. But he also is known for his wonderful, selfeffacing sense of humor . When accused of being two-faced, for instance, Lincoln quickly replied, “If I had two  
faces, do you think I'd be wearing thisface?”  
These examples of distinctive and defining characteristics are the foundation for the trait appr oach, which seeks to  
discover what characteristics form the core of human personality .  
Early Trait Theorists  
When early researchers began to investigate personality traits, they had to decide just what to include. An early  
study of dictionary terms found almost 4,500 words that fit the researchers' definition of personality traits (Allport  
& Odbert, [13.7]). Faced with this enormous list, Gordon Allport ([13.6]) believed that the best way to understand  
personality was to arrange a person's unique personality traits into a hierarchy, with the most pervasive or  
important traits at the top.  
Later psychologists reduced the list of possible personality traits using a statistical technique called factor analysis,  
in which large arrays of data are grouped into more basic units (factors). Raymond Cattell ([13.38], [13.39])  
condensed the list of traits to 16 source traits (see the Try This Y ourself). Hans Eysenck ([13.59], [13.60]) reduced  
the list even further . He described personality as a relationship among three basic types of traits: extraversion–  
intr oversion, neuroticism(the tendency toward insecurity , anxiety , guilt, and moodiness), and psychoticism(being  
out of touch with reality).  
Try This Y ourself Constructing Y our Own Personality Profile  
Note how Cattell's 16 source traits exist on a continuum, from low to high. There are extremes at either end, such  
as reserved and less intelligent at the far left and outgoing and more intelligent at the far right. A verage falls  
somewhere in the middle. T o construct your own profile, add a dot on each line that represents your own degree of  
each personality trait, and then connect the dots with a line.  
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Modern Trait Theory  
Factor analysis was also used to develop the five-factor model (FFM), which is the most promising modern trait  
theory (Costa & McCrae, [13.48]; McCrae, [13.108]; McCrae & Costa, [13.109]). A handy way to remember this  
model is to note that the first letters of the five words spell ocean(Figure13.8).  
Figure 13.8 The five-factor model (FFM)Different adjectives may  
describe your personality , depending on whether you score high or low  
in each of the “Big Five” traits. Note that each factor exists on a  
continuum. If you'd like more details, take the five-factor online selftest at www .personalitytest.org.uk.  
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Think Critically  
1\.   
Do you think these five factors accurately reflect your key personality traits? Why or why not?  
2\.   
Some have said that the first four factors are the “nice” traits. Under what conditions could scoring low on  
extraversion (being intr overted) be advantageous?  
Combining previous research findings and the long list of possible personality traits, researchers discovered that  
these five traits came up repeatedly , even when different tests were used:  
Opennessrefers to people who are generally open to new ideas and experiences and willing to try new things.  
For instance, if you score high on this dimension, you probably enjoy talking with people with sharply different  
opinions because you realize that what the other person is saying may have value. People low on this trait  
generally like routine and prefer to maintain the status quo.  
Conscientiousnessapplies to people who are typically highly organized, dependable, and careful about their  
belongings. If you are often late to class or social events, and commonly misplace things, you may be low on  
conscientiousness.  
Extraversionrefers to people who are generally outgoing, talkative, and assertive. In contrast, introversion  
describes individuals who tend to be retiring, quiet, and mild mannered. If you dislike being the center of  
attention and enjoy your time alone, you're probably more introverted. The reverse is true for someone who is  
extraverted. (As mentioned in the chapter opener, there are many myths about introversion and extraversion. T o  
clarify these misunderstandings, check out the Myth Busters.)  
Myth Busters Misconceptions about Introversion and Extraversion  
True or False?  
1\.   
Introverts don't like people and always want to be alone.  
2\.   
Introverts don't like to talk.  
3\.   
Introverts are shy .  
4\.   
Extraverts are bad listeners.  
5\.   
Extraverts are shallow .  
6\.   
Extraverts don't like quiet time or being alone.  
7\.   
Y ou're either an introvert or an extravert.  
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Each of these statements is false (Cain, [13.32]; Laney, [13.101]; T artakovsky , [13.154]). Introverts and  
extraverts just have differing ways of interacting with others and processing information. For example,  
introverts value people—particularly close friends—and while they're very comfortable being alone, introverts  
also crave authentic and sincere connections with a few others. Similarly , many believe introverts don't like to  
talk and are shy . In reality , they just avoid “small talk” and prefer to think about what they want to say before  
speaking. Furthermore, keep in mind that shyness and introversion are not the same. Unlike shy people,  
introverts are not necessarily afraid of others or of being judged by them. They just prefer less stimulating  
environments with fewer people.  
There are also several myths about extraversion. For instance, extraverts are sometimes mistakenly considered  
to be bad listeners or shallow because of their talkativeness and high sociability . While extraverts do like a  
certain amount of quiet time and being alone, they also enjoy socializing in large groups because they tend to  
process thoughts and information as they're speaking and interacting with others. In contrast, introverts process  
their thoughts and information through self-reflection.  
Regarding the myth that you're either an introvert or an extravert, you've discovered throughout this text that  
most aspects of human nature fall on a continuum and that most people fall somewhere in the middle.  
Personality is like creativity , intelligence, and psychological disorders. W e all have relative amounts of  
different traits. No one is either totally introverted or totally extraverted.  
I am rather inclined to silence, and whether that be wise or not, it is at least more unusual nowadays to find a  
man who can hold his tongue than to find one who cannot.  
—Abraham Lincoln  
Agreeablenessdescribes a person's basic emotional style. Individuals who score high in this factor are  
typically easy going and pleasant to be around, whereas low scorers are often irritable and difficult to be  
around.  
Neuroticism (or emotional stability)refers to an individual's emotional stability or instability . People who  
score high in neuroticism are generally anxious and moody , whereas low scorers tend to be calm and eventempered.  
The five-factor model (FFM) has led to numerous research follow-ups and intriguing insights about personality  
(Barceló, [13.13]; Choi & Shin, [13.44]; Suso-Ribera & Gallardo-Pujol, [13.153]). A recent large-scale study of  
profile photos on social media found several interesting correlations with the FFM (Liu et al., [13.104]). For  
instance, users high in agreeableness or extraversion tended to post colorful pictures of people that convey  
emotion, whereas people high in openness or neuroticism posted fewer photos of people.  
Other studies indicate that these five personality traits are linked with real-world outcomes. Extraversion and  
neuroticism, for instance, are linked with greater procrastination (Kim et al., [13.95]). Researchers have also found  
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that conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness are reliable predictors for success, with conscientiousness  
being strongly linked with academic grade point average (GP A) (Rahafar et al., [13.132]; Steinmayr & Kessels,  
[13.150]; V ecchione et al., [13.163]). Based on your own college experience, can you see why this makes intuitive  
sense? How would you explain why extraversion does not positively correlate with GP A?  
What about nonhuman animals? Do you think they have distinct personalities? If so, what implications might  
specific personality traits have? T o find out, read the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Do Nonhuman Animals Have Unique Personalities?  
Pet owners have long believed that their dogs and cats have unique personalities, and a growing body of research  
tends to support these beliefs (Cote et al., [13.49]; Cussen & Mench, [13.50]; Gosling & John, [13.67]). The same  
is true of various animals, including macaques, bonobos, marmosets, orangutans, and chimpanzees (Adams et al.,  
[13.2]; Iwanicki & Lehmann, [13.90]; W eiss et al., [13.2]; W ergård et al., [13.169]). Furthermore, chimpanzee  
personality traits have been found to be quite similar to those described by the FFM of human personality  
(Latzman et al., [13.103]). Research has even found evidence of personality traits in cockroaches (Planas-Sitjà et  
al., [13.127])!  
Dog lovers might be interested in knowing that when 78 dogs of all shapes and sizes were rated by both owners  
and strangers, a strong correlation was found in ratings on traits such as affection, aggression, anxiety , calmness,  
and intelligence. In addition, these researchers found that personalities vary widely within a breed, which means  
that not all pit bulls are aggressive and not all Labrador retrievers are affectionate (Gosling et al., [13.68]).  
In one interesting study , researchers wanted to find out whether particular personality traits were associated with a  
longer life expectancy in nonhuman animals. These researchers studied 298 gorillas in zoos and sanctuaries across  
North America. Using standardized measures similar to the FFM, they asked zookeepers, volunteers, researchers,  
and caretakers who knew the gorillas well to score each gorilla's personality. W ith these scorings, they reliably  
identified four distinct personality traits: dominance, extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness(W eiss et al.,  
[13.166]).  
Next, the researchers examined the association between levels of each of these personality traits and life  
expectancy . They found that gorillas scoring high on extraversion, which included behaviors such as sociability ,  
activity , play , and curiosity , lived longer . This link was found in both male and female gorillas and across all the  
different types of environments in which this research was conducted.  
What might explain this link? One possibility is that extraverted apes—just like extraverted people—develop  
stronger social networks, which helps increase survival and reduce stress. Can you think of other possible  
explanations?  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
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Based on the information provided, did this study (W eiss et al., [13.166]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or  
experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were  
not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is  
presented in most textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then  
comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of  
scientific research.  
Evaluating Trait Theories  
The FFM is the first model to achieve the major goal of trait theory—to describe and organize personality  
characteristics using the smallest number of traits. There is also research support for the FFM. Psychologist David  
Buss and his colleagues ([13.27], [13.28]) surveyed more than 10,000 men and women from 37 countries and  
found a surprising level of agreement in the characteristics that men and women value in a mate ( T able13.1). Note  
that both sexes generally prefer mates with traits that closely match the FFM—dependability (conscientiousness),  
emotional stability (low neuroticism), pleasing disposition (agreeableness), and sociability (extraversion).  
T able13.1Mate Preferences and the Five-Factor Model (FFM)  
What Men Most W ant in a Mate What W omen Most W ant in a Mate  
1.Mutual attraction—love  1.Mutual attraction—love  
2.Dependable character  2.Dependable character  
3.Emotional stability and maturity 3.Emotional stability and maturity  
4.Pleasing disposition  4.Pleasing disposition  
5.Good health  5.Education and intelligence  
6.Education and intelligence  6.Sociability  
7.Sociability  7.Good health  
8.Desire for home and children  8.Desire for home and children  
9.Refinement, neatness  9.Ambition and industriousness  
10.Good looks 10.Refinement, neatness  
Source:Based on Buss et al., [13.29].  
Why is there such a high degree of shared preferences for certain personality traits? Scientists suggest that these  
traits may provide an evolutionary advantage to people who are more conscientious, extraverted, and agreeable—  
and less neurotic. For instance, people who are conscientious have better health, which is clearly advantageous  
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(Israel et al., [13.89]). The evolutionary advantage is also confirmed by cross-cultural studies and comparative  
studies with dogs, chimpanzees, and other highly social species (e.g., Carlo et al., [13.35]; Gosling, [13.66];  
V alchev et al., [13.161]).  
Along with having strong cross-cultural support, trait theories like the FFM allow us to predict real-life preferences  
and behaviors, such as our political attitudes, beliefs, and voting preferences, and even how much time we spend  
on Facebook (Bakker et al., [13.9]; Barceló, [13.13]; Hart et al., [13.74]). Furthermore, people who are extraverted  
have been found to prefer upbeat, energetic, and rhythmic types of music, such as rap and hip-hop. In contrast,  
people who are open to experience prefer complex, intense, and rebellious music, such as classical and rock  
(Langemeyer et al., [13.102]).  
Despite their relative successes, critics argue that trait theories merely describe personality rather than explaining  
it. Moreover , they generally fail to consider situational determinants of personality or to offer sufficient  
explanations for why people develop specific traits (Chamorro-Premuzic, [13.41]; Cheung et al., [13.42]; Furguson  
et al., [13.62]). And although trait theories have shown personality to be fairly stable, they have failed to identify  
which characteristics last a lifetime and which are most likely to change (Carlo et al., [13.35]; Hosie et al., [13.84];  
McCrae, [13.48]). Interestingly, research does show that certain stressful life events, such as being unemployed or  
experiencing natural disasters, can change our personalities (Boyce et al., [13.23]; Kandler et al., [13.94]; Milojev  
et al., [13.114]). Moreover, we can sometimes deliberately change our personalities if we have specific goals in  
mind (Hudson & Fraley, [13.85]). W ould you like to be a more positive person and maybe change some parts of  
your own personality? See the following discussion.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessCan (and Should) W e Impr ove Our  
Personalities?  
Have you ever admired the personalities of others and wished you could be more like them? The good news is that  
many personality traits can increase through training. In one study, researchers randomly divided 178 adults into  
three groups for a period of ten weeks (Proyer et al., [13.131]). One group focused on increasing the traits of  
“curiosity ,” “gratitude,” “hope,” “humor ,” and “zest.” The second group trained on the strengths of “appreciation  
of beauty ,” “creativity ,” “kindness,” “love of learning,” and “perspective.” The third group served as a control and  
did not complete any type of training.  
People in the two treatment groups completed brief exercises at some point each day, such as writing a thank you  
letter (to practice gratitude) or paying attention to things they found beautiful in the world (to train their  
appreciation of beauty). As predicted, findings revealed that participants who focused on increasing traits such as  
curiosity , gratitude, and hope (Group 1) experienced greater life satisfaction at the end of the training sessions than  
those in the other two groups. In addition, both training groups reported greater well-being after the interventions  
concluded than did those in the control group.  
Although this study suggests that we can change certain personality traits, keep in mind that psychologists only  
describepersonality traits. W e don't advise on what traits should be changed. That's for you as an individual to  
decide. Moreover, like beauty , personality traits are largely in the eye of the beholder . What traits people decide are  
preferable over others depends on the group, culture, and history .  
For example, given our fast-paced, highly competitive society, you may think that to be successful you need to be  
an apparent extravert, like Stephen Colbert (see the photo). However, Colbert, Albert Einstein, Bill Gates, Meryl  
Streep, Lady Gaga, Selena Gomez, and Abraham Lincoln are all either self-described introverts or have been  
classified as introverts.  
In short, before deciding to change your personality , note that almost all personality traits have both positive and  
negative characteristics. And, as mentioned earlier, all our traits exist on a continuum. No one is entirely  
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extraverted nor always introverted.  
TV talk show host Stephen ColbertHow would you describe his personality?  
Retrieval Practice 13.2 Trait Theories  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly explain factor analysis.  
2\.   
What are the “Big Five” personality traits in the five-factor model?  
a. conscientiousness, openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism  
b. shyness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism  
c. shyness, conscientiousness, introversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism  
d. none of these options  
3\.   
People who score high in ________are emotionally unstable and prone to insecurity , anxiety , guilt, worry , and  
moodiness.  
a. openness  
b. conscientiousness  
c. extraversion  
d. neuroticism  
4\.   
Trait theories of personality have been criticized for ________.  
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a. failing to explain why people develop specific traits  
b. not including a large number of central traits  
c. failing to identify which traits last and which are transient  
d. not considering situational determinants of personality  
e. all but one of these options  
5\.   
Which of the following is NOT associated with the trait theories of personality?  
a. Cattell  
b. Allport  
c. Rorschach  
d. Eysenck  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 3 (Stress and Health Psychology), you discovered that certain personality and individual differences  
directly affect how we cope with stress. Which characteristics of the five-factor model of personality are similar to  
the traits that may interact in a positive or negative way with stress, as identified in Chapter 3?  
.  
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13.4 Social-Cognitive Theories  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major concepts of social-cognitive theories of personality.  
•ExplainBandura's and Rotter's approaches to personality.  
•Summarizethe strengths and weaknesses of the social-cognitive perspective on personality .  
As you've just seen, psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, trait, and humanistic theories all focus on internal, personal  
factors in personality development. In contrast, social-cognitivetheories emphasize the influence of our social  
interpersonal interactions with the environment, along with our cognitions—our thoughts, feelings, expectations,  
and values.  
Bandura's and Rotter's Approaches  
Albert Bandura (see Chapter 6) has played a major role in reintroducing thought processes into personality theory.  
Cognition, or thought, is central to his concept of self-efficacy, which is very similar to our everyday notion of selfconfidence (Bandura, [13.10], [13.11]; Herrero-Hahn et al., [13.77]). Abraham Lincoln's personality offers  
numerous examples of self-efficacy . He often self-confidently took the blame for others, shared credit for  
successes, and quickly conceded his errors. He also refused to bear grudges. Opponent Edwin Stanton called him a  
“long-armed ape” and deliberately shunned and humiliated him. However, when Lincoln needed a new W ar  
Secretary , he appointed Stanton because he considered Stanton the best man for this very important position  
(Goodwin, [13.65]).  
According to Bandura, if you have a strong sense of self-efficacy , as Lincoln apparently did, you believe you can  
generally succeed and reach your goals, regardless of past failures and current obstacles. Y our degree of selfefficacy will in turn affect which challenges you choose to accept and the effort you expend in reaching your goals  
(Bruning & Kauffman, [13.26]; Phan & Ngu, [13.126]). (See the Try This Y ourself.) Interestingly , perceived selfefficacy in older adults is associated with better cognitive functions, and researchers suggest it might even help  
reduce stress and prevent cognitive decline (Korten et al., [13.98]).  
Try This Y ourself Self-efficacy in Daily Life  
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The classic children's story The Little Engine That Couldillustrates how we learn self-efficacy through our  
personal experiences with success. The little engine starts up a steep hill, saying, “I think I can, I think I can.” After  
lots of hard work and perseverance, she ends up at the top of the hill and says, “I thought I could, I thought I  
could.”  
Bandura emphasized that self-efficacy is a learnedexpectation of success, but only in a given situation. It doesn't  
necessarily transfer to other circumstances. Bandura would suggest that the little engine's new-found self-efficacy  
will help her climb future hills. However, it wouldn't necessarily improve her overall speed or ability to turn sharp  
corners. Similarly , self-defense training significantly affects a woman's belief that she can improve her odds of  
escaping from or disabling a potential assailant or rapist. But it does not lead her to feel more capable in all areas of  
her life (W eitlauf et al., [13.168]).  
How then can you transfer self-efficacy from one part of your academic or professional life to another? If you've  
experienced success as an athlete, a parent, or even a videogame player, consider how the skills you've  
demonstrated in these areas can be transferred to your academic life. Instead of saying, “I just can't find time to  
study” or “I never do well on tests,” remind yourself of how your ongoing success in athletics, parenting, or  
videogames has resulted from good time management, hours of practice, patience, hard work, and perseverance.  
Applying skills that are the same as or similar to skills you've successfully used before will help move you from “I  
can't” to “I think I can.” And then when you get your first high grade in a difficult course, you can move on to “I  
know I can, I know I can!”  
How does self-efficacy affect personality? Bandura sees personality as being shaped by reciprocal determinism,  
which means that internal factors within the person(his or her personality , thoughts, expectations, etc.), the  
external environment, and the person's behaviorall work as interacting (reciprocal) determinants of each other  
(Figure13.11). Using Bandura's concept of self-efficacy , do you see how your own beliefs will affect how others  
respond to you and thereby influence your chance for success? Y our belief (“I can succeed”) will affect behaviors  
(“I'll work hard and ask for a promotion”), which in turn will affect the environment (“My employer recognized  
my efforts and promoted me”).  
Figure 13.11 Bandura's theory of reciprocal determinismAccording to Albert Bandura,  
personality is determined by a three-way , reciprocal interaction of the internal  
characteristics of the person, the external environment, and the person's behavior.  
Julian Rotter's theory is similar to Bandura's in that it suggests that learning experiences create cognitive  
expectanciesthat guide behavior and influence the environment (Rotter, [13.138], [13.139]). According to Rotter ,  
your behavior or personality is determined by (1) what you expect to happen following a specific action and (2) the  
reinforcement value attached to specific outcomes.  
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T o understand personality and behavior, Rotter used personality tests that measure internal versus external locus of  
contr ol(Chapter 3). Rotter's tests ask participants to respond to statements such as, “People get ahead in this world  
primarily by luck and connections rather than by hard work and perseverance” and “When someone doesn't like  
you, there is little you can do about it.” As you may suspect, people with an external locus of controlthink the  
environment and external forces have primary control over their lives, whereas people with an internal locus of  
contr olthink they can personally control events in their lives through their own efforts (Figure13.12).  
Figure 13.12 Locus of control and  
achievementDespite this cartoon's humorous  
message, research does link a perception of  
control with higher achievement, greater life  
satisfaction, and better overall mental health  
(e.g., Albert & Dahling, [13.5]; Nowicki,  
[13.124]).  
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories  
The social-cognitive perspective holds several attractions. First, it offers testable, objective hypotheses and  
operationally defined terms, and it relies on empirical data. Second, social-cognitive theories emphasize the role of  
cognitive processes in personality and that both personality and situations predict behavior in real-world situations  
(Sherman et al., [13.148]). Relatedly , high school students who study abroad (thereby experiencing a change in  
environment) show greater changes in personality than those who do not (Hutteman et al., [13.87]). For instance,  
exchange students showed substantial increases in their self-esteem compared to those who stayed home (see the  
photo).  
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As we discussed earlier, there's a wealth of modern research connecting the Big Five personality traits to success in  
both work and academic settings, and these traits are closely related to the social-cognitive traits of self-efficacy  
and an internal locus of control. Furthermore, psychologist Carol Dweck has shown that our beliefs about our own  
abilities (mindset) influence how hard we try to achieve. For example, children who have a “fixed” mindset believe  
that intelligence is stable over time, so they aren't particularly motivated to try harder in school, since they believe  
such efforts won't really matter . In contrast, children who have a “growth” mindset believe that their efforts can  
make a difference, so they try harder in school, and, not surprisingly , perform better (Dweck, [13.56], [13.57];  
Y eager et al., [13.173]).  
On the other hand, critics argue that social-cognitive theories focus too much on situational influences. They also  
suggest that this approach fails to adequately acknowledge the stability of personality , as well as sociocultural,  
emotional, unconscious, and biological influences (Ahmetoglu & Chamorro-Premuzic, [13.4]; Berger, [13.16]; Cea  
& Barnes, [13.40]). One of the most influential studies on the potential stability of personality traits is the now  
classic “marshmallow test”—the lead researcher, W alter Mischel, was even a guest on Stephen Colbert's The  
Colbert Report. For more information, see the following discussion.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessCould Y ou Pass the Stanfor d  
Marshmallow T est?  
Beginning in the early 1960s and 1970s, psychologist W alter Mischel and his colleagues conducted numerous  
experiments on delayed gratification, which is defined as “putting off a pleasurable experience in exchange for a  
larger but later reward.” In their most famous study , they recruited more than 600 children between the ages of 4  
and 6 who attended a preschool at Stanford University (Mischel & Ebbesen, [13.118]). Each child was led into a  
room and seated alone at a table with a very tempting marshmallow within easy reach. They were then told they  
could eat the marshmallow at any time, but if they waited for 15 minutes, they would get two marshmallows. The  
child was then left alone, while the researchers watched and recorded how long each child would wait before  
giving into temptation. Can you imagine what happened? See Figure13.13.  
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Figure 13.13 Psychology and  
marshmallows?Some children  
in this study quietly stared at the  
marshmallow while waiting for  
the experimenter to return.  
Others wiggled in their chairs,  
kicked at the table, smelled or  
petted the marshmallow , sang  
songs, or simply looked away—  
all in an attempt to resist  
temptation. And, as expected of  
preschoolers, a large number of  
children immediately ate the  
marshmallow as soon as the  
researcher left the room! Only a  
third of the preschoolers  
delayed gratification long  
enough to get the second  
marshmallow.  
What makes this very simple research so compelling is that the researchers continued to study the children for  
more than 40 years—with dramatic results! The amount of time the children were able to delay eating the first  
marshmallow, and wait for the second one (delayed gratification), was a significant predictor of later success.  
Those who delayed gratification ended up with higher SA T scores, lower levels of substance abuse, lower  
likelihood of obesity , better responses to stress, greater academic performance and social skills as reported by their  
parents, and generally better scores in a range of other life measures (Caleza et al., [13.33]; Mischel, [13.115],  
[13.1 16]; Mischel et al., [13.117]).  
There are two important things to remember about this marshmallow study. First, it clearly illustrates the value of  
longitudinal research (Figure13.14). Second, keep in mind that at every stage of our lives there will be numerous  
“marshmallows”—a fun party versus studying, an attractive new sexual partner versus our current one, a new car  
versus saving for retirement—that will potentially distract us from our long-term goals and personal best interests.  
The “simple” answer appears to be that when faced with critical decisions we need to continually make mindful  
choices. If you'd like more information on the importance of self-control and delay of gratification with numerous  
practical applications, see Mischel's book The Marshmallow T est(Mischel, [13.1 16]).  
Figure 13.14 Interestingly , the  
spouse of one of the authors of  
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this book (CAS) was one of the  
original participants in the  
marshmallow study, and the  
researchers have continued to  
follow up with him—and his  
wife and children. As evidence  
of psychology's strict ethical  
guidelines for research, even  
now , over 40 years later , the  
researchers will not disclose  
whether or not the author's  
husband ate the marshmallow!  
Retrieval Practice 13.4 Social-Cognitive Theories  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Briefly describe Bandura's self-efficacy theory .  
2\.   
Bandura's theory of ________suggests that the person, behavior, and environment all interact to produce  
personality .  
a. self-actualization  
b. self-esteem maximization  
c. self-efficacy  
d. reciprocal determinism  
3\.   
________suggests that learning experiences create cognitive expectancies that guide behavior and influence the  
environment.  
a. W alter Mischel  
b. Julian Rotter  
c. Abraham Maslow  
d. Carl Sagan  
4\.   
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According to Rotter, people with a(n) ________believe the environment and external forces control events,  
whereas those with a(n) ________believe in personal control.  
a. self-actualized personality; efficacy personality  
b. external locus of control; internal locus of control  
c. fatalistic view; humanistic opinion  
d. global locus of control; selfish locus of control  
5\.   
A criticism of the social-cognitive approach is that it focuses too much on ________in understanding personality .  
a. scientific research  
b. unconscious forces  
c. situational influences  
d. expectancies  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you discovered the social-cognitive theory of personality and Albert Bandura's concept of  
r eciprocal determinism. In Chapter 15 (Therapy), you'll learn about cognitive therapies and Albert Ellis's rationalemotive behavior therapy(REBT). Explain how reciprocal determinism compares with REBT .  
.  
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13.5 Biological Theories  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the role that biology plays in personality .  
•Discusshow brain structures, neurochemistry , and genetics influence personality .  
•Explainthe contributions and limitations of biological theories.  
•Describehow the biopsychosocial model blends various approaches to personality .  
In this section, we explore how biological factors influence our personalities. W e conclude with a discussion of  
how all theories of personality ultimately interact in the biopsychosocial model.  
Three Major Contributors to Personality  
Hans Eysenck, the trait theorist mentioned earlier in the chapter, was one of the first to propose that personality  
traits are biologically based—at least in part. And modern research supports the theory that certain brain structures,  
neurochemistry , and genetics all may contribute to some personality characteristics (e.g., Boyle et al., [13.24]).  
Brain Structures  
How do we decide in the real world which risks are worth taking and which are not (see the photo)? Modern  
research using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and other brain-mapping techniques documents  
specific areas of the brain that correlate with trait impulsiveness and areas that differ between people with riskaverse versus risk-seeking personalities (Rass et al., [13.133]; Schilling et al., [13.143]). Research has also found  
that increased electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in the left frontal lobe of the brain is associated with  
sociability or extraversion, whereas greater EEG activity in the right frontal lobes is associated with shyness and  
introversion (Fishman & Ng, [13.61]; T ellegen, [13.156]).  
Neurochemistry  
A major limitation of research on brain structures and personality is the difficulty of identifying which structures  
are uniquely connected with particular personality traits. Neurochemistry seems to offer more precise data on how  
biology influences personality . For example, sensation seeking (Chapter 12) has consistently been linked with high  
levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that regulates levels of neurotransmitters such as dopamine  
(T rofimova & Robbins, [13.157]; Zuckerman, [13.175], [13.176], [13.177]). Likewise, dopamine seems to be  
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correlated with addictive personality traits, novelty seeking, and extraversion (Blum et al., [13.17]; Harris et al.,  
[13.73]; Norbury & Husain, [13.123]; Schilling et al., [13.143]).  
How can neurochemistry have such effects? Studies suggest that high-sensation seekers and extraverts generally  
experience less physical arousal than introverts from the same stimulus (Fishman & Ng, [13.61]; Munoz &  
Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, [13.120]). Extraverts' low arousal apparently motivates them to seek out  
situations that will elevate their arousal. Moreover, it is believed that a higher arousal threshold is genetically  
transmitted. In other words, personality traits like sensation seeking and extraversion may be inherited. Our genes  
may also predict how we parent and even possible criminal behaviors, including arrest records (Armstrong et al.,  
[13.8]; Klahr & Burt, [13.96]; van den Berg et al., [13.162]).  
Genetics  
This recognition that genetic factors have a significant influence on personality has contributed to the relatively  
new field called behavioral genetics, which attempts to determine the extent to which behavioral differences among  
people are due to genetics as opposed to the environment (Chapter 9). One interesting study found that individuals  
with a “niceness gene” were more likely to report engaging in various types of prosocial behaviors, such as giving  
blood, volunteering, and donating to charitable organizations (Poulin et al., [13.129]).  
One way to measure genetic influences is to compare similarities in personality between identical twins and  
fraternal twins (see Figure13.15). T win studies of the FFM, for example, suggest that genetic factors account for  
about 40 to 50% of personality traits (Bouchard, [13.21], [13.22]; McCrae et al., [13.112]; Plomin et al., [13.128]).  
a. Identical twins  
Identical (monozygotic—one egg) twins share 100% of the same genes  
because they develop from a single egg fertilized by a single sperm.  
They also share the same placenta and are always the same sex.  
b. Fraternal twins  
Fraternal (dizygotic—two eggs) twins share, on average, 50% of their  
genes because they are formed when two separate sperm fertilize two  
separate eggs. Although they share the same general environment  
within the womb, they are no more genetically similar than non-twin  
siblings. They're simply nine-month “womb mates.”  
Figure 13.15 Identical versus fraternal twins  
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In addition to conducting twin studies, researchers compare the personalities of parents with those of their  
biological children and their adopted children (see Figure13.16). Studies of extraversion and neuroticism have  
found that parents' traits correlate moderately with those of their biological children and hardly at all with those of  
their adopted children (Bouchard, [13.21]; McCrae et al., [13.111]).  
Figure 13.16 Adoption studiesIf adopted children are more like their biological  
family in some trait, then genetic factors probably had the greater influence.  
Conversely , if adopted children resemble their adopted family , even though they do  
not share similar genes, then environmental factors may predominate.  
Evaluating Biological Theories  
Modern research in biological theories has provided exciting insights and established clear links between some  
personality traits and various brain areas, neurotransmitters, and genes. However, researchers are careful to  
emphasize that personality traits are never the result of a single biological process (Cicchetti, [13.45]; Latzman et  
al., [13.103]; Turkheimer et al., [13.159]). Some believe the importance of the unshared environment—aspects of  
the environment that differ from one individual to another , even within a family—has been overlooked. Others fear  
that research on “genetic determinism” could be misused to “prove” that an ethnic or a racial group is inferior, that  
male dominance is natural, or that social progress is impossible.  
In sum, there is no doubt that biological studies have produced valuable results. However, as is true for all the  
theories discussed in this chapter , no single theory explains everything we need to know about personality . Each  
theory offers different insights into how a person develops the distinctive set of characteristics we call  
“personality .” That's why , instead of adhering to any one theory , many psychologists believe in the biopsychosocial  
approach, or the idea that several factors—biological, psychological, and social—overlap in their contributions to  
personality (Figure13.17).  
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Figure 13.17 Multiple influences on personalityResearch has identified three important  
influences on personality that might contribute to this child's apparent shyness. Still, some  
factors remain unknown.Source: Bouchard, 1997; 2013; McCrae et al., 2004, 2010; Plomin  
et al., 2016.  
Retrieval Practice 13.5 Biological Theories  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Discuss Hans Eysenck's contribution to theories of personality.  
2\.   
Dopamine is reportedly involved in the personality traits of ________.  
a. conscientiousness, extraversion, and altruism  
b. extraversion and neuroticism  
c. impulsivity , aggression, and altruism  
d. novelty seeking, extraversion, and sensation seeking  
3\.   
________theories emphasize the importance of genetics in the development of personality .  
a. Behavioral genetics  
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b. Behavioral metrics  
c. Social/personal genetics  
d. Biometrical engineering  
4\.   
Some research indicates that genetic factors account for about ________of personality .  
a. 10–12%  
b. 12–25%  
c. 25–38%  
d. 40–50%  
5\.   
Which approach represents a blending of several theories of personality?  
a. Inherited basis  
b. Biopsychosocial  
c. Social/overlap  
d. None of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 2 (Neuroscience and Biological Foundations), we discussed the role of different neurotransmitters in  
behavior and biological processes. In this chapter, you learned that personality has a biological component. Explain  
how neurochemistry may be involved in a personality characteristic such as sensation seeking or impulsivity.  
.  
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13.6 Personality Assessment  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the major methods and limitations of personality assessment.  
•Describethe four categories of personality assessment.  
•Explainthe key benefits and limitations of personality assessment.  
•Discussthe logical fallacies associated with pseudo-personality assessment.  
Y ou have a strong need for other people to like and admire you. Y ou tend to be critical of yourself. Although you have  
some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them. At times, you have serious doubts about  
whether you have made the right decision or done the right thing.  
—Adapted from Ulrich et al., [13.160]  
Does this sound like you? A high percentage of research participants who read a similar personality description  
reported that the description was “very accurate”—even after they were informed that it was a phonyhoroscope  
(Hyman, [13.88]). Other research shows that about three-quarters of adults read newspaper horoscopes and that many  
of them believe astrological horoscopes were written especially for them (Sugarman et al., [13.151]; Wyman & V yse,  
[13.172]).  
Why are such spurious personality assessments so popular? One reason is that they seem to tap into our unique  
selves. Supporters of these horoscopes, however, ignore the fact that the traits they supposedly reveal are  
characteristics that almost everyone shares. Do you know anyone who doesn't “have a strong need for other people to  
like and admire” them?  
Like this phony horoscope, a variety of other unscientific methods have been used over the years to assess personality  
(Figure13.18). Even today , some people consult fortune-tellers, tarot cards, and fortune cookies in Chinese  
restaurants. But scientific research has provided much more reliable and valid methods for measuring personality  
(Berger, [13.16]; Dana, [13.51]). Clinical and counseling psychologists, psychiatrists, and other helping professionals  
use these modern methods to help with the diagnosis of patients and to assess their progress in therapy. Personality  
assessments can be grouped into a few broad categories: interviews, observation, objective tests, and projective tests.  
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Figure 13.18 Personality and  
bumps on the head?In the 1800s,  
if you wanted to have your  
personality assessed, you would  
go to a phrenologist, who would  
determine your personality by  
measuring the bumps on your  
skull. The phrenologist would  
then compare those  
measurements with a chart that  
associated different areas of the  
skull with particular traits, such  
as sublimity(ability to squelch  
natural impulses, especially  
sexual) and ideality(ability to  
live by high ideals). What traits  
might be measured if we still  
believed in phrenology today?  
Interviews and Observation  
W e all use informal “interviews” to get to know other people. When first meeting someone, we usually ask about his  
or her job, academic interests, family , or hobbies. Psychologists also use interviews. In an unstructured format,  
interviewers get impressions and pursue hunches or let the interviewee expand on information that promises to  
disclose personality characteristics. In structured interviews, the interviewer asks specific questions in order to  
evaluate the interviewee's responses more objectively and compare them with others' responses.  
Along with conducting interviews, psychologists also assess personality by directly and methodically observing  
behavior . They look for examples of specific behaviors and follow a careful set of evaluation guidelines. For instance,  
a psychologist might arrange to observe a troubled client's interactions with his or her family. Does the client become  
agitated by the presence of certain family members and not others? Does he or she become passive and withdrawn  
when asked a direct question? Through careful observation, the psychologist gains valuable insights into the client's  
personality as well as family dynamics (Figure13.19).  
Figure 13.19 Behavioral observationHow  
might careful observation help a psychologist  
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better understand a troubled client's personality  
and family dynamics?  
As a further complement to face-to-face observations, psychologists have used social media outlets—such as  
Facebook—to observe personality . For instance, thanks to social media postings, selfies, “likes,” and other responses,  
researchers can now study and sometimes predict a number of personality characteristics and attributes, including  
self-efficacy , FFM traits, sexual orientation, ethnicity , religious and political views, intelligence, happiness, use of  
addictive substances, parental separation, age, and gender (e.g., Choi & Shin, [13.44]; Hong et al., [13.81]; Kosinski  
et al., [13.99]). If you'd like to learn more about how Facebook posts can be used to predict your own personality ,  
here's a link: https://applymagicsauce.com/demo.html.  
Objective T ests  
Objective personality tests, or inventories, are the most widely used method of assessing personality , for two reasons:  
They can be administered to a large number of people relatively quickly , and they can be evaluated in a standardized  
fashion. Some objective tests measure one specific personality trait, such as sensation seeking (Chapter 12) or locus  
of control. However, psychologists in clinical, counseling, and industrial settings often wish to assess a range of  
personality traits. T o do so, they generally use multitrait, multiphasic, inventories.  
The most widely researched and clinically used self-report method of personality assessment is the Minnesota  
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)—or its revisions, the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-2-RF (Butcher, [13.30],  
[13.31]; Chmielewski et al., [13.43]; Williams & Lally , [13.170]). The latest version, the MMPI-2-RF , consists of 338  
statements. Participants respond with True, False, or Cannot Say . The following are examples of the kinds of  
statements found on the MMPI:  
My stomach frequently bothers me.  
I have enemies who really wish to harm me.  
I sometimes hear things that other people can't hear .  
I would like to be a mechanic.  
I have never indulged in any unusual sex practices.  
Did you notice that some of these questions are about very unusual, abnormal behavior? Although there are many  
“normal” questions on the full MMPI, the test was originally designed to reveal abnormal personality traits and  
behaviors, and it's currently used to help clinical and counseling psychologists diagnose psychological disorders. The  
MMPI is also sometimes employed for various screening purposes, such as in hiring decisions and forensic settings.  
Other objective personality measures are less focused on abnormal personality traits. A good example is the NEO  
Personality Inventory–Revised, which assesses the dimensions of the five-factor model.  
Note that personality tests like the MMPI are often confused with car eer inventories, or vocational interest tests.  
Career counselors use these latter tests (along with aptitude and achievement tests) to help people identify  
occupations and careers that match their unique traits, abilities, and interests.  
Projective T ests  
Unlike objective tests, projective testuse ambiguous stimuli that people can perceive in many ways. When you listen  
to a piece of music or look at a picture, you might say that the music is sad or that the people in the picture look  
happy—but not everyone would have the same interpretation. Some psychologists believe that these different  
interpretations reveal important things about each individual's personality .  
As the name implies, projective tests are meant to allow test takers to “project” their underlying motives, conflicts,  
and personality traits onto the test materials. Because respondents may be unable or unwilling to express their true  
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feelings if asked directly , the ambiguous stimuli reportedly provide an indirect “psychological X-ray” of unconscious  
processes (Hogan, [13.78]). The Rorschach Inkblot T estand Thematic Apperception T est (T A T)are two of the most  
widely used projective tests (Cashel, [13.37]; Silverstein, [13.149]). See Concept Organizer13.1.  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 13.1 Sample Projective T ests  
The verbal or written responses participants make to projective tests reportedly reflect unconscious, hidden parts of  
their personalities that they unintentionally “project” onto the stimuli.  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on  
quizzes and exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
a. Rorschach Inkblot T estThis is one of many examples  
of the “inkblot” test first introduced in 1921 by Swiss  
psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach. T est takers are shown 10  
inkblots like the one shown here, one at a time, and are  
asked to report what figures or objects they see in each of  
them.  
b. Thematic Apperception T est (T A T)Created by  
personality researcher Henry Murray in 1938, this test  
consists of a series of ambiguous black-and-white pictures,  
like this one, that are shown to the test taker, who is asked  
to create a story related to each one.  
Evaluating Personality Assessments  
Let's evaluate the strengths and the challenges of each of the four methods of personality assessment: interviews,  
observations, objective tests, and projective tests.  
Interviews and Observations  
Both interviews and observations can provide valuable insights into personality, but they are time-consuming and  
expensive. Furthermore, raters of personality tests frequently disagree in their evaluations of the same individuals.  
Interviews and observations also take place in unnatural settings. In fact, the very presence of an observer can alter a  
person's behavior . For example, can you recall a time when you were nervous in a job interview and didn't act quite  
the same as you would have in a more relaxed setting?  
Objective T ests  
T ests like the MMPI-2 provide specific, objective information about a broad range of personality traits in a relatively  
short period. However , they are subject to at least three major criticisms:  
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1.Problems with self-reports Some items on personality inventories are easy to see through, so respondents may  
fake particular personality traits. In addition, some respondents want to look good and will answer questions in  
ways that they perceive are socially desirable. For instance, people might try to come across as less hostile and  
more kind to others in their responses to some test items. Interestingly, self-report data among some groups can  
also be misleading because the respondents do not see themselves accurately. As an example, narcissists typically  
have an excessive form of self-love and overevaluate their performance (Guedes, [13.70]).  
T o avoid these problems, the MMPI-2 has built-in validity scales. Furthermore, personality researchers and some  
businesses avoid self-reports. Instead, they rely on other people, such as friends or coworkers, to rate individuals'  
personalities, as well as how their personalities influence their work performance (Connelly & Hülsheger,  
[13.46]). In fact, three meta-analyses, involving over 44,000 participants, found that ratings from others were  
better predictors of actual behavior, academic achievement, and job performance than those based on self-reports  
(Connelly & Ones, [13.47]).  
2.Diagnostic difficulties When self-report inventories are used for diagnosis, overlapping items sometimes make  
it difficult to pinpoint a disorder (Ben-Porath, [13.15]; Hogan, [13.78]; Hunsley et al., [13.86]). Clients with  
severe disorders sometimes score within the normal range, and normal clients sometimes score within the  
elevated range (Borghans et al., [13.19]; Morey , [13.1 19]). Furthermore, one study found that computer-based  
tests were more accurate at determining someone's personality than those delivered by humans (Y ouyou et al.,  
[13.174]).  
3.Cultural bias and inappropriate use Some critics think the standards for “normalcy” on objective tests fail to  
recognize the impact of culture (Dana, [13.51]; Geisinger & McCormick, [13.64]; Malgady et al., [13.105]). T o  
illustrate, research examining personality traits in members of the T simané culture, a community of foragers and  
farmers in Bolivia with relatively little contact with the outside world, reveals two distinct dimensions of  
personality—prosociality and industriousness—instead of the more widely accepted five personality traits  
(Gurven et al., [13.71]).  
Differences in personality may also be seen in different parts of a single country (Rentfrow , [13.135]). For  
example, one study of over half a million people in the United States revealed regional differences in personality  
traits linked with entrepreneurial activity , defined as business-creation and self-employment rates (Obschonka et  
al., [13.125]). As you can see in Figure13.20, certain regions are much more entrepreneurial than others. Why?  
The authors of the study suggest that the higher scores in the W est, for example, might reflect America's historical  
migration patterns of people moving into the W est from the East (or from outside of America). They cite other  
research (e.g., Rentfrow et al., [13.136]) that suggests this selective migration may have had a lasting effect on  
personality due to the heritability of personality traits and the passing on of norms and values within the regions.  
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Figure 13.20 Entrepreneurship in the United States  
What do you think? How would you explain the differences? Can you see the overall value of expanding our study of  
personality from just looking at differences between individuals to examining regional differences? And can you see  
how this expansion might increase our understanding of how personality is formed and its potential applications? If  
you're interested in seeing how personality research can be applied to your career choice, see the following.  
Psychology and Y our Professional SuccessShould Y ou Match Y our Personality  
with Y our Car eer?  
As mentioned earlier, the FFM traits of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness are clearly linked with job  
success. But what about other factors, such as job satisfaction? Do some personality characteristics make you better  
suited for certain jobs than others? According to psychologist John Holland's personality–job fit theory, a match (or  
“good fit”) between our individual personality and our career choice is a major factor in determining job satisfaction  
(Holland, [13.79], [13.80]). Research shows that a good fit between personality and occupation helps increase  
subjective well-being, job success, and job satisfaction. In other words, people are generally happier and like their  
work when they're well matched to their jobs (Hagmann-von Arx et al., [13.72]; Joeng et al., [13.91]; Sundstrom et  
al., [13.152]). Check T able13.2 to see what job would be a good match for your personality .  
T able13.2  
Personality Characteristics Holland Personality T ype Matching/Congruent Occupations  
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Personality Characteristics Holland Personality T ype Matching/Congruent Occupations  
Shy , genuine, persistent,  
stable, conforming, practical  
1\. Realistic:Prefers physical activities that  
require skill, strength, and coordination  
Mechanic, drill press operator,  
assembly-line worker, farmer  
Analytical, original, curious,  
independent  
2\. Investigative:Prefers activities that involve  
thinking, organizing, and understanding  
Biologist, economist, mathematician,  
news reporter  
Sociable, friendly ,  
cooperative, understanding  
3\. Social:Prefers activities that involve helping  
and developing others  
Social worker, counselor , teacher ,  
clinical psychologist  
Conforming, efficient,  
practical, unimaginative,  
inflexible  
4\. Conventional:Prefers rule-regulated, orderly ,  
and unambiguous activities  
Accountant, bank teller, file clerk,  
manager  
Imaginative, disorderly ,  
idealistic, emotional,  
impractical  
5\. Artistic:Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic  
activities that allow creative expression  
Painter, musician, writer , interior  
decorator  
Self-confident, ambitious,  
energetic, domineering  
6\. Enterprising:Prefers verbal activities with  
opportunities to influence others and attain  
power  
Lawyer, real estate agent, public  
relations specialist, small business  
manager  
Source:Adapted and reproduced with special permission of the publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.,  
16204 North Florida A venue, Lutz, Florida 33549, from the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, 3rd edition,  
by Gary D. Gottfredson, Ph.D., and John L. Holland, Ph.D., Copyright 1982, 1989, 1996. Further reproduction is  
prohibited without permission from P AR, Inc.  
Projective T ests  
Although projective tests are extremely time-consuming to administer and interpret, their proponents say that because  
the method is unstructured, respondents may be more willing to talk honestly about sensitive topics. Critics point out,  
however, that the r eliabilityand validityof projective tests is among the lowest of all tests of personality (Hartmann &  
Hartmann, [13.75]; Hunsley et al., [13.86]; Koocher et al., [13.97]). (Recall from Chapter 8 that reliability—the  
consistency of test results—and validity—whether the test actually measures what it was designed to measure—are  
essential criteria for a good test.)  
As you can see, each of these methods has limits, which is why psychologists typically combine the results from  
various scientific methods to create a fuller picture of any individual's personality. However , you're unlikely to have  
access to this type of professional analysis, so what's the most important take-home message? Beware of pop-psych  
books and pop-culture personality quizzes in magazines and on websites! They may be entertaining, but they're rarely  
based on standardized testing or scientific research of any kind, and you should never base decisions on their input.  
Finally , throughout this text, we have emphasized the value of critical thinking, and it's particularly useful in  
evaluating personality tests (see the Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself What's Wrong with Pseudo-Personality Quizzes?  
The phony personality horoscope presented earlier in this section contains several logical fallacies. Using your critical  
thinking skills, can you see how the following three factors help explain why so many people believe in fake  
personality descriptions and predictions?  
Barnum Effect  
W e often accept phony personality descriptions and horoscope predictions because we think they are accurate. W e  
generally believe these tests have somehow tapped into our unique selves. In fact, they are ambiguous, broad  
statements that fit just about anyone (e.g., “Y ou have a strong need for other people to like and admire you”). The  
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existence of such generalities led to the term the Barnum effect, named for the legendary circus promoter P . T .  
Barnum, who said, “Always have a little something for everyone” (Wyman & V yse, [13.172]).  
Confirmation Bias  
Look again at the introductory personality profile and count the number of times you agree with the statements.  
According to the confirmation bias(Chapter 8), we tend to notice and remember events that confirm our expectations  
and ignore those that are nonconfirming (Dibbets & Meesters, [13.53]; Digdon, [13.54]; Kukucka & Kassin,  
[13.100]). If we see ourselves as independent thinkers, for example, we ignore the “needing to be liked by others”  
part.  
Self-Serving Biases  
Now check the overall tone of the bogus personality profile. Do you see how the traits are generally positive and  
flattering—or at least neutral? According to several self-serving biases, we typically maximize the positivity of our  
self-view by preferring information that maintains our positive self-image (Sanjuán & Magallares, [13.142]; Sedkides  
& Alicke, [13.146]). In fact, research shows that the more favorable a personality description is, the more people  
believe it, and the more likely they are to believe it is personally unique (Guastello et al., [13.69]).  
T aken together, these three logical fallacies help explain the common support for pop-psych personality tests and  
newspaper horoscopes. They offer something for everyone (Barnum effect). W e pay attention only to what confirms  
our expectations (confirmation bias). And we like flattering descriptions (self-serving biases).  
Think Critically  
Using the information in this T ry This Y ourself, can you identify the two major fallacies in this cartoon?  
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Retrieval Practice 13.6 Personality Assessment  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
What is phrenology?  
2\.   
The most widely researched and clinically used self-report personality test is the ________.  
a. MMPI  
b. Rorschach Inkblot T est  
c. T A T  
d. SVII  
3\.   
During a(n) ________, individuals are asked to respond to a standardized set of ambiguous stimuli.  
a. projective test  
b. objective test  
c. MMPI exam  
d. phrenology exam  
4\.   
The Rorschach Inkblot T est is an example of which of the following?  
a. Projective  
b. Ambiguous stimuli  
c. Inkblot  
d. All these options  
5\.   
T wo essential criteria for evaluating the usefulness of tests used to assess personality are ________.  
a. concurrence and prediction  
b. reliability and validity  
c. consistency and correlation  
d. diagnosis and prognosis  
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Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among  
the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 8 (Thinking, Language, and Intelligence), we explored how intelligence is measured. In this chapter, we  
examined how personality is assessed. How are the two methods of assessment most similar, and how are they  
primarily different?


	14. Chapter 14

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14.1 Studying Psychological Disorders  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the study of psychological disorders.  
•Describeabnormal behavior and the four criteria for identifying psychological disorders.  
•Explainhow perspectives on the causes of psychological disorders have changed throughout history .  
•Discussthe Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM), and its pros and cons.  
•Reviewthe key factors in the stigma of mental illness and the increased risk of suicide.  
Did you know that over 40 million American adults, more than the population of New Y ork and Florida combined, currently suffer from  
a mental health condition (The State of Mental Health, [14.226])? That means that one in six American adults suffers from a  
psychological disorder(or multiple psychological disorders). This type of disorder is defined as a clinically significant collection of  
symptoms (a syndrome) characterized by serious disruptions in an individual's thoughts, feelings, and/or actions.  
When do such disruptions rise to the level of a “disorder?” Most people agree that neither the artist who stays awake for 72 hours  
finishing a painting nor the shooter who kills 20 young school children is behaving normally . But what exactly is “normal”? How do we  
distinguish between eccentricity in the first case and abnormal behavior in the second?  
Understanding Psychological Disorders  
As you can see, it can be difficult to distinguish normal from abnormal behavior, and psychologists have struggled to create a precise  
definition. However, mental health professionals generally agree that abnormal behavior(or psychopathology) can be identified as  
patterns of behaviors, thoughts, or emotions considered pathological (diseased or disordered) for one or more of these four reasons:  
deviance, dysfunction, distress,and/or danger(Concept Organizer14.1). Keep in mind that abnormal behavior, like intelligence and  
creativity , is not composed of two discrete categories—“normal” and “abnormal.” Instead, mental health lies along a continuum, with  
people being unusually healthy at one end and extremely disturbed at the other (Angermeyer et al., [14.7]; Schomerus et al., [14.196];  
Sue et al., [14.219]).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 14.1 Four Criteria for Identifying Abnormal Behavior  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
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When considering the four criteria for abnormal behavior, remember that no single criterion is adequate by itself. Furthermore,  
judgments of what is personally distressing, and what is deviant or dysfunctional, vary historically and cross-culturally . Perhaps the  
most damaging issue surrounding abnormal behavior is that the public generally overestimates the danger posed by those who suffer  
from psychological disorders. In fact, they are far more likely to be the victimsof violence than the perpetrators. See T able14.1 for  
more about this and other myths of mental illness.  
T able14.1Common Myths About Mental Illness  
• Myth: Mentally ill people are often dangerous and unpredictable.  
Fact:Only a few disorders, such as some psychotic and antisocial personality  
disorders, are associated with violence. Only about 3% of the violent crimes in  
America are committed by people with serious mental illness. The stereotype that  
connects mental illness and violence persists because of prejudice, selective media  
attention, and negative portrayals in movies and on television.  
Is this behavior abnormal?  
Eccentric? Y es. Mentally disordered? Probably not.  
• Myth: People with psychological disorders act in bizarre ways and are very  
different from normal people.  
Fact:This is true for only a small minority of individuals and during a relatively  
brief portion of their lives. In fact, sometimes even mental health professionals find  
it difficult to distinguish normal from abnormal behaviors without formal  
screening.  
• Myth: Psychological disorders are a sign of personal weakness.  
Fact:Like all other illnesses, psychological disorders are a function of many  
factors, such as exposure to stress, genetic predispositions, a host of personal and  
sociocultural experiences, and family background. Mentally disturbed individuals  
can't be blamed for their illness any more than we blame people who develop  
cancer or other illnesses.  
• Myth: A mentally ill person is only suited for low-level jobs and never fully  
recovers.  
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Fact:Once again, like all other illnesses, psychological disorders are complex, and  
their symptoms, severity , and prognoses differ for each individual. W ith therapy ,  
the vast majority of those who are diagnosed as mentally ill eventually improve  
and lead normal, productive lives. Moreover, the extreme symptoms of some  
psychological disorders are generally only temporary . Jennifer Lawrence, our  
famous figure for this chapter , as well as U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, British  
Prime Minister Winston Churchill, scientist Isaac Newton, and other highachieving people all suffered from serious psychological disorders at various times  
throughout their careers.  
Sources:Arkowitz & Lilienfeld, [14.10]; Bell, [14.23]; Knoll & Annas, [14.115]; National Alliance on Mental Health, [14.154].  
What causes abnormal behavior? Historically, evil spirits and witchcraft have been blamed (Campbell et al., [14.45]; Iheanacho et al.,  
[14.100]; Stefanovics et al., [14.213]). Some Stone Age people, for instance, believed that abnormal behavior stemmed from demonic  
possession. The “therapy” was to bore a hole in the skull so the evil spirit could escape, a process we call tr ephining. During the  
European Middle Ages, abnormal behavior was sometimes treated with exorcism, which was a religious or spiritual practice designed to  
evict the demons by making the troubled person's body inhospitable through lengthy prayers, fasting, and beatings. During the later  
Renaissance period (14th to the 17th century), many believed that some individuals chose to consort with the Devil. These supposed  
witches were often tortured, imprisoned for life, or executed (Figure14.1).  
Figure 14.1 Witchcraft or mental illness?During the  
European Renaissance, some people who may have been  
suffering from mental disorders were accused of witchcraft  
and tortured or hung.  
As the Renaissance ended, special mental hospitals called asylumsbegan to appear in Europe. Initially designed to provide quiet  
retreats from the world and to protect society , the asylums unfortunately became overcrowded, inhumane prisons (Radhika et al.,  
[14.176]; Shiraev , [14.205]).  
Improvement came in 1792, when Philippe Pinel, a French physician, was placed in charge of a Parisian asylum. Believing that inmates'  
behavior was caused by underlying physical illness, he insisted that they be unshackled and removed from their dark, unheated cells.  
Many inmates improved so dramatically that they could be released. Pinel's actions reflect the ideals of the modern medical model,  
which assumes that diseases (including mental illness) have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and possibly cured and  
prevented. This medical model is the foundation of the branch of medicine, known as psychiatry, that deals with the diagnosis,  
treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.  
In contrast, psychologists believe that focusing on “mental illness” overlooks critical social and cultural factors, as well as our own  
personal thoughts, feelings, and actions that contribute to psychological disorders. Therefore, we take a multifaceted approach to  
explaining abnormal behavior, as shown in Figure14.2.  
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Figure 14.2 Seven psychological perspectivesAs you can see in this diagram,  
the seven major perspectives differ in their explanations for the general causes  
of psychological disorders, but there is still considerable overlap.  
Classifying Psychological Disorders  
Along with identifying and explaining abnormal behavior, we need to classify it—that is, place it in specific categories. Why? Without  
a clear , reliable system for classifying the wide range of psychological disorders, scientific research on them would be almost  
impossible, and communication among mental health professionals would be seriously impaired. Fortunately , mental health specialists  
share a uniform classification system, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This manual has been updated  
and revised several times, and the fifth edition was published in 2013 (American Psychiatric Association, [14.5]).  
Each revision of the DSMhas expanded the list of disorders and changed the descriptions and categories to reflect the latest scientific  
research. Consider the terms neurosisand psychosis. In previous editions of the DSM, the term neurosisreflected Freud's belief that all  
neurotic conditions arise from unconscious conflicts (Chapter 13). Now , conditions that were previously grouped under the heading  
neurosishave been formally studied and redistributed as separate categories.  
Unlike neurosis, the term psychosisis still listed in the current edition of the DSMbecause it remains useful for distinguishing the most  
severe psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia. Psychosisis generally defined as a serious psychological condition in which  
thoughts and perceptions are so impaired that the individual loses contact with external reality . This loss of contact with reality is most  
evident in the two key features of psychosis—delusions and hallucinations. Delusionsare false, imaginary beliefs that persist despite  
clear evidence to the contrary , such as delusions of grandeur or persecution. In comparison, hallucinationsare false, imaginary sensory  
perceptions that occur without an external objective source, such as hearing voices that others do not hear (Figure14.3).  
Figure 14.3 Illusions,  
hallucinations, and delusionsAs  
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you may recall from Chapter 4,  
delusions and hallucinations are  
not the same as illusions.  
Delusions and hallucinations are  
false, imaginary , and experienced  
by someone who is out of touch  
with reality . In contrast, illusions  
are misleading perceptions of  
reality that are similarly  
experienced by others. The moon  
illusion, shown here, in which the  
moon appears larger near the  
horizon than it does higher up in  
the sky , is a classic example. In this  
case, virtually everyone shares the  
same visual experience.  
An example is the infamous case of Andrea Y ates, who methodically drowned her five children in their bathtub. She may have been  
suffering from postpartum depression—a rare form of depression caused by hormonal changes after giving birth. Y ates told police that  
Satan had ordered her to kill the children, and drowning them was all she could think about (Sher & Braswell, [14.203]). Y ates was later  
judged to have been psychotic and in a delusional state at the time of the killings.  
Note that psychosis, along with delusions and hallucinations, also may occur with substance abuse. In amphetamine psychosis(Chapter  
5), for instance, users may experience a loss of contact with reality , hallucinate, and become delusional. In this chapter, however , we'll  
focus on psychological disorders, and be aware that psychosis, delusions, and hallucinations may occur to varying degrees with several  
different psychological disorders.  
What about the term insanity? Insanityis a legal term indicating that a person cannot be held responsible for his or her actions or is  
incompetent to manage his or her own affairs because of mental illness. In the law , the definition of mental illness rests primarily on a  
person's inability to tell right from wrong (Figure14.4). Andrea Y ates was one of the rare cases in which someone was found not guilty  
by reason of insanity . The court found that, because of her psychotic condition at the time of the crime, she did not know her actions  
were wrong. Since her trial, Y ates has been in continuous residence in a state hospital in T exas, where her lawyer reports she's doing  
remarkably well after 15 years of therapy (Wilkinson & Spargo, [14.245]). In conclusion, bear in mind that the term “insanity” often  
appears in public conversations, but it's seldom used by psychologists. People suffer from specific psychological disorders—they're not  
“insane.”  
Figure 14.4 The insanity plea—guilty of a crime or  
mentally ill?On February 25, 2015, a jury found Eddie  
Ray Routh guilty of shooting and killing Chris Kyle (the  
famous “American Sniper”) and Chad Littlefield. (Routh  
and Kyle are pictured to the right. No photo was  
available for Littlefield.) Although the defense team  
claimed that Routh was legally insane, the jury decided  
that he did know right from wrong, and the judge  
sentenced Routh to life in prison without the possibility  
of parole. Note that the insanity plea is used in fewer  
than 1% of all cases that reach trial and is successful in  
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only a fraction of those (Dirks-Linhorst, [14.66];  
Goldstein et al., [14.82]; Phillip, [14.171]).  
Describing and Evaluating the DSM  
The DSMidentifies and describes the symptoms of approximately 400 disorders, which are grouped into 22 categories ( T able14.2).  
Note that we focus on only the first 7 in this chapter (categories 8–14 are discussed in other chapters; 15–22 are beyond the scope of  
this book). Also, keep in mind that people may be diagnosed with more than one disorder at a time, a condition referred to as  
comorbidity.  
T able14.2Subcategories of Mental Disorders  
1.Anxiety disorders Problems associated with excessive fear and anxiety and related  
behavioral disturbances.  
2.Depressive disorders Problems characterized by the presence of sad, empty , or irritable  
mood.  
3.Bipolar and related disorders Problems associated with alternating episodes of depression  
and mania.  
4.Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders Group of disorders characterized by  
delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or motor behavior, and negative symptoms,  
such as diminished emotional expression.  
5.Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders Group of disorders characterized by the  
presence of obsessions, compulsions, preoccupations, and/or repetitive behaviors or mental  
acts.  
6.Dissociative disorders Group of disorders characterized by a disruption and/or  
discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory , identity , emotion,  
perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.  
7.Personality disorders Problems related to an enduring pattern of experience and behavior  
that deviates markedly from the expectations of an individual's culture and leads to distress  
or impairment.  
8.Trauma- and stressor-related disorders Problems associated with exposure to a traumatic or  
stressful event (see Chapter 3).  
9.Sleep–wake disorders Dissatisfaction regarding the quality, timing, and amount of sleep  
(see Chapter 5).  
10.Substance-related and addictive disorders A cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and  
physiological symptoms related to alcohol, tobacco, other drugs, and gambling (see Chapter  
5).  
11.Feeding and eating disorders Problems related to persistent disturbance of eating or  
eating-related behavior (see Chapter 12).  
12.Paraphilic disorders Problems involving an intense and persistent sexual interest causing  
distress or impairment to the person or whose satisfaction has entailed personal harm, or risk  
of harm, to others (see Chapter 11).  
13.Sexual dysfunctions A significant disturbance in a person's ability to respond sexually or  
to experience sexual pleasure (see Chapter 11).  
14.Gender dysphoria Distress that may accompany the incongruence between a person's  
experienced or expressed gender and one's assigned gender (see Chapter 11).  
15.Neurodevelopmental disorders Developmental deficits that typically manifest early in  
life, often before the child enters grade school, and produce impairments of personal, social,  
academic, or occupational functioning (see Chapter 10).  
16.Somatic symptom and related disorders Problems related to unusual preoccupation with  
physical health or physical symptoms producing significant distress and impairment.  
17.Elimination disorders Problems related to the inappropriate elimination of urine or feces,  
usually first diagnosed in childhood or adolescence.  
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18.Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders Problems related to kleptomania  
(impulsive stealing), pyromania (setting of fires), and other disorders characterized by  
inability to resist impulses, drives, or temptations to perform certain acts harmful to self or  
others.  
19.Neurocognitive disorders A group of disorders involving cognitive function, including  
Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and physical trauma to the brain (see Chapters 2  
and 7).  
20.Other mental disorders Residual category of mental disorders that cause significant  
distress or impairment but do not meet the full criteria for any other disorder in DSM-5.  
21.Medication-induced movement disorders and other adverse effects of medication These  
are not mental disorders but are included because of their importance in the management by  
medication and differential diagnosis of mental disorders.  
22.Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention These are not mental disorders  
but are included to draw attention to and document issues that may be encountered in routine  
clinical practice.  
Source:Kring et al., [14.119].  
As mentioned earlier, the DSM'stype of classification of psychological disorders is essential to scientific study . W ithout a system such  
as the DSM, we could not effectively identify and diagnose the wide variety of disorders, predict their future courses, or suggest  
appropriate treatment. Moreover, the DSMfacilitates communication among professionals and patients, and serves as a valuable  
educational tool.  
Unfortunately , the DSMdoes have limitations and potential problems (Aragona, [14.9]; Bornstein, [14.32]; Gonçalves et al., [14.83]).  
Some critics have proposed that the latest revision lacks an official discussion of the ethical, political, economic, and related values  
underlying the classification and diagnostic processes involved. Others contend that the DSMmay be casting too wide a net and  
overdiagnosing. Given that insurance companies compensate physicians and psychologists only if each client treated for a mental  
disorder is assigned a specific DSMcode number , can you see how compilers of the DSMmay be encouraged to add more diagnoses?  
The DSMhas also been criticized for a potential cultural bias. It does provide a culture-specific section and a glossary of culture-bound  
syndromes, such as ataque de nervios (attack of nerves), dhat syndrome (semen loss), khyâl cap (wind attack), kufingisisa (thinking too  
much), and taijin kyofusho (interpersonal fear disorder). However, the overall classification still reflects a W estern European and U.S.  
perspective (Hsu, [14.97]; Jacob, [14.102]; Jani et al., [14.104]).  
Perhaps the most troubling criticism of the DSMis its possible overreliance on the medical model and the way it may unfairly label  
people. Consider a classic (and controversial) study conducted by David Rosenhan ([14.187]) in which he and seven colleagues  
presented themselves at several hospital admissions offices complaining of hearing voices (a classic symptom of schizophrenia). Aside  
from making this single false complaint and providing false names and occupations, the researchers answered all questions truthfully.  
Not surprisingly , given their reported symptom, they were all diagnosed with psychological disorders and admitted to the hospital. Once  
there, the “patients” stopped reporting any symptoms and behaved as they normally would, yet none were ever recognized by hospital  
staff as phony . All eight of these pseudo-patients were eventually released after an average stay of 19 days. However, all but one were  
assigned a label on their permanent medical records of “schizophrenia in remission.”  
Special Issues in Psychological Disorders  
What do you think about the Rosenhan study just described? Do you see how it demonstrates the inherent dangers and “stickiness” of  
all forms of labels? This particular study has been criticized, but few doubt that the stigma, prejudice, and discrimination surrounding  
mental illness often create lifetime career and social barriers for those who are already struggling with the psychological disorder itself.  
In the following section, we will explore two major issues related to psychological disorders—the stigma of mental illness and the  
increased risk of suicide.  
The Stigma of Mental Illness  
T oday , public attitudes toward mental illness may be more negative than ever because of the media's intensive coverage of mass  
shootings by people with mental disorders. For example, many Americans were shocked and deeply saddened on June 17, 2015, when  
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21-year-old Dylann Roof (see the photo) shot and killed nine people who were attending a church prayer service in Charleston, South  
Carolina. Roof later confessed to the crime, saying that he murdered the Black church members because he wanted to ignite a race war.  
Following the shootings, the news media focused on issues of race and gun control. However, many also expressed the view that mental  
illness was a motivating factor and a common thread in mass shootings (Gonyea & Montanaro, [14.84]; Lysiak, [14.134]). Can you see  
how this type of intensive media coverage increases myths, misconceptions, and exaggerated fears of mental illness? To make matters  
worse, the media seldom, if ever, mention the fact that people with mental illness are less often perpetrators of violence than they are  
victims of violence or of their own self-destructive behaviors (Arkowitz & Lilienfeld, [14.10]; Metzl & MacLeish, [14.146]).  
In 2010, the U.S. Surgeon General published a landmark mental health report identifying stigma as a public health concern.  
Unfortunately , the stigma still exists. T wo serious consequences of stigmatizing mental illness are that it discourages individuals from  
seeking help when they need it, and it decreases public support for funding the treatment of mental illness. These reactions can lead to  
devastating, even life-threatening, consequences (Gilberti, [14.80]; Knoll & Annas, [14.115]). Given the approximately 450 million  
people worldwide who have a mental illness and the serious problems of labeling, you can see why we need to put an end to the stigma  
and discrimination that currently surround this condition (Baker, [14.15]). Along with providing counseling and services for the victims,  
we need to transform our public perception and media coverage of mental illness.  
The Increased Risk of Suicide  
Did you know that close to 800,000 people die worldwide each year due to suicide (World Health Organization, [14.242])? Even people  
who enjoy enormous fame and financial success may be at risk, including well-known actors, comedians, and musicians, like Robin  
Williams and Kurt Cobain; professional athletes, like Olympic medalist Jeret Peterson and football player Junior Seau; and influential  
writers and artists, like Virginia W oolf, Ernest Hemingway , and V incent van Gogh. T ragically , many of these deaths by suicide were  
permanent solutions to what might have been temporary problems.  
What can we do? The first step might be to identify the many suicide myths and misunderstandings. We also need to recognize the  
danger signs and when to seek help for ourselves and others (see Concept Organizer14.2).  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 14.2 Understanding and Preventing Suicide  
This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
Common Myths about Suicide  
Because of the shame and secrecy surrounding suicide, there are many misconceptions and stereotypes. Can you identify which of the  
following are true and which are false?  
1.People who talk about suicide are less likely to actually complete it.  
2.Suicide usually takes place with little or no warning.  
3.Suicides can trigger “copycat” attempts.  
4.Suicidal people are fully intent on dying.  
5.Children of parents who attempt suicide are at greater risk of dying by suicide.  
6.Suicidal people remain so forever.  
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7.Men are more likely than women to kill themselves by suicide.  
8.When a suicidal person has been severely depressed, and seems to be “snapping out of it,” the danger of suicide decreases  
substantially .  
9.Only depressed people die by suicide.  
10.Thinking about suicide is rare.  
11.Asking a depressed person about suicide will push him or her over the edge and cause a suicidal act that might not otherwise  
have occurred.  
12.Self-injury , such as cutting, burning, and/or hitting oneself, inevitably escalates to suicide.  
Now , compare your responses to the experts' answers and explanations:  
1 and 2 FalseUp to three-quarters of those who take their own lives talk about it and give warnings about their intentions  
beforehand. They may say , “If something happens to me, I want you to …” or , “Life just isn't worth living.” They also provide  
behavioral clues, such as giving away valued possessions, withdrawing from family and friends, and losing interest in favorite  
activities.  
3T rueThere is substantial evidence that media reports of deaths by suicide, particularly those of celebrities, increase the number of  
copycat suicides (e.g., Çelik et al., [14.50]; Schäfer & Quiring, [14.192]; Suh et al., [14.220]). Although the term “copycat” has  
been criticized for possibly trivializing the deep suffering that leads to suicide (Owens, [14.166]), keep in mind that intense media  
coverage does increase a type of mimicry among some individuals.  
4FalseOnly about 3% to 5% of suicidal people truly intend to die. Most are just unsure about how to go on living. Unfortunately,  
they can't see their problems objectively enough to recognize alternative courses of action. They often gamble with death, arranging  
it so that fate or others will save them. However , once the suicidal crisis passes, they're generally grateful to be alive.  
5T rueChildren of parents who attempt or die by suicide are at much greater risk of following in their footsteps. It has been said  
that: “The person who dies by suicide puts his psychological skeleton in the survivor's emotional closet” (cited in Schneidman,  
[14.195], p. 225).  
6FalsePeople who want to kill themselves are usually suicidal only for a limited period.  
7T rueAlthough women are much more likely to attempt suicide, men are far more likely to actually complete it. This is true  
because men generally use more effective and lethal methods, such as guns instead of pills.  
8FalseWhen people are first coming out of a depression, they are at greater risk because they now have the energy to actually  
attempt suicide.  
9FalseSuicide rates are highest among people with major depressive disorders. However, suicide is also the leading cause of  
premature death in people who suffer from schizophrenia, as well as a major cause of death in people with anxiety disorders and  
alcohol and other substance-related disorders. Furthermore, poor physical health, serious illness, loneliness, unemployment, and  
even natural disasters may push some people over the edge. Interestingly , people who work in careers that have great pressure for  
perfectionism—doctors, lawyers, architects, those in leadership roles—are at elevated risk.  
10FalseEstimates from various studies are that 40% to 80% of the general public have thought about attempting suicide at least  
once in their lives.  
11FalseBecause society often considers suicide a terrible, shameful act, asking directly about it can give the person permission to  
talk. In fact, not asking is more likely to lead to further isolation and depression.  
12FalseAlthough people who engage in self-injuring behaviors are at significantly greater risk of suicide (e.g., Chesin et al.,  
[14.51]), their intention is not to kill themselves, and the behaviors don't inevitably lead to suicide. This problem is officially known  
as nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI). Most common among adolescents and young adults, NSSI usually results from attempts to punish  
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oneself for perceived faults, to provide distraction from painful emotions through physical pain, and to express internal feelings in  
an external way (Bresin et al., [14.38]; Mayo Clinic, [14.139]). This is particularly true for individuals who are unaware of and less  
able to cope with feelings of anger (Thomassin et al., [14.228]).  
Danger Signs for Suicide  
What are the key signals for impending suicide? Let's consider the major symptoms, risk factors, and emergency signs:  
General symptoms:  
•the three H's—feeling Helpless, Hopeless, and Hapless.  
•alcohol and other drug abuse  
•irritability  
•loss of interest in daily activities  
•persistent fatigue and lack of energy and strength  
•insomnia or excessive sleeping  
•difficulty concentrating or feeling very restless  
•noticeably reduced or increased appetite  
Risk factors:  
•previous history of substance abuse or suicide attempt  
•family history of substance abuse, suicide attempt, suicide, or mental illness  
•firearms, medications, or other methods for suicide readily available  
•recent emotional trauma, such as incarceration, loss of a loved one, or loss of an important job  
Emergency signs:  
•increasing use of alcohol and other drugs  
•acting anxious or agitated or displaying extreme mood swings  
•talking about unbearable pain, feeling trapped, or being a burden to others  
•talking about wanting to die or of having no reason to live  
•talking about wanting to kill oneself or seeking revenge  
•social withdrawal and/or sleeping too little or too much  
•seeking methods for suicide, such as buying a gun  
If you or someone you know is currently feeling suicidal, remember that: Suicide is a permanent response to what is generally a  
temporary problem! Get immediate help!Also see the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Getting Help When Y ou Think Someone Is Suicidal  
If you have a friend or loved one with serious depression, it may feel like you're walking through a minefield when you're attempting to  
comfort and help them. What do the experts suggest?  
What NOT to Do:  
•Don't ignore the warning signs. (See again the previous list of danger signs for suicide.) Depression, like cancer or heart disease, is  
a critical, life-threatening disease. Knowing the signs of suicide risk can increase your confidence in how and when to intervene  
(Ramchand et al., [14.177]).  
•Don't equate suicide with “selfishness.” Just as we wouldn't say that someone suffering from diabetes or cancer died because he or  
she lacked courage and was being selfish, we need to recognize the courage and strength of the chronically and deeply depressed  
who struggle each day NOT to die.  
•Don't be afraid to discuss suicide. In a calm voice, ask the person a direct question, such as, “Are you thinking of hurting  
yourself?” Many people fear the topic of suicide because they think they might put that idea into the other person's head. As  
mentioned before, the reality is that virtually every adult knows what suicide is, and many have even considered it for themselves.  
Furthermore, people who are told “you can't be seriously considering suicide” often feel even more alone, become less likely to  
share their true feelings, and become more likely to actually attempt suicide.  
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•Don't abandon the person after the suicidal crisis has seemingly passed. Depression and suicidal thoughts don't magically  
disappear . For many , the fight against depression is a painful, lifelong struggle, and your friend or loved one needs your ongoing  
support.  
What to Do:  
•Stay with the person. Encourage him or her to talk to you rather than to withdraw. Show the person that you care, but do not give  
false reassurances that “everything will be okay .” If you feel like you can't handle the crisis by yourself, share your suspicions with  
parents, friends, or others who can help in a suicidal crisis. T o save a life, you may have to betray a secret when someone confides  
in you.  
•Be Rogerian. As mentioned in Chapters 13 and 15, Carl Rogers's four essential qualities of communication (empathy ,  
unconditional positive regar d, genuineness, and active listening) are probably the best, and safest, approach for any situation—  
including talking with a depressed, suicidal person.  
•Find help fast! If a friend or loved one mentions suicide, or if you believe he or she is considering it, remove any weapons,  
medications, or other means the person might use to harm himself or herself. Discourage the person from using alcohol or illegal  
drugs, and get professional help fast! Most cities have walk-in centers that provide emergency counseling. Also, consider talking to  
the person's family , a therapist, or the toll-free 7/24 hotline 1-800-SUICIDE or 1-800-273-T ALK. If you think the situation calls for  
emergency intervention, call 911 or go to the emergency room without delay .  
Sources:American Association of Suicidology, [14.4]; Arkowitz & Lilienfeld, [14.10]; Birmaher & Brent, [14.29]; Depression the  
Second Time Around, n.d.; Lilienfeld et al., [14.125]; National Institute of Mental Health, [14.155]; Suicide Basic Facts, [14.221].  
Before we close this section and begin our discussion of the various psychological disorders, we'd like to offer a somewhat uplifting  
note. Research shows that one of the best ways to reduce suicides is to pass laws that limit access to handguns. Compared with states  
without such laws, those with background checks have a 53% lower gun suicide rate, those with mandated gun locks have a 68% lower  
gun suicide rate, and those with restrictions on open carry have a 42% lower gun suicide rate. Similarly, the longer the waiting period to  
buy a gun, the lower the gun suicide rate (Anestis et al., [14.6]; Metzl & MacLeish, [14.146], Stroebe, [14.218]).  
The mentally ill frighten and embarrass us. And so we marginalize the people who most need our acceptance. What mental health needs  
is mor e sunlight, more candor , mor e unashamed conversation.  
—Glenn Close (Actress, Mental Health Advocate)  
Retrieval Practice 14.1 Studying Psychological Disorders  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
What is the DSM, and how is it used?  
2\.   
In the early treatment of psychological disorders, ________was used to allow evil spirits to escape, whereas ________was designed to  
drive the Devil out through prayer, fasting, and so on.  
a. trephining; exorcism  
b. demonology; hydrotherapy  
c. the medical model; the dunking test  
d. exorcism; stoning  
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3\.   
________is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders.  
a. Psychology  
b. Psychiatry  
c. Psychobiology  
d. Psychodiagnostics  
4\.   
Label the seven psychological perspectives on psychological disorders.  
5\.   
The DSM provides ________for mental disorders.  
a. categorical descriptions  
b. a global perspective  
c. a classification system  
d. all but one of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you learned that the seven major perspectives of psychology emphasize different factors in explaining psychological  
disorders. In Chapter 15 (Therapy), you will learn about several forms of therapy and the approach each takes to treating psychological  
disorders. If you were suffering from a psychological disorder , do you think you would you prefer a biological (medication) or  
psychological (talk or insight) type of treatment?  
.  
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14.2 Anxiety Disorders  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the major types of anxiety disorders.  
•Describethe characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, and phobias.  
•Explainhow psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors contribute to anxiety disorders.  
Have you ever faced a critical, “high stakes” exam, job interview, or first date and broken out in a cold sweat, felt your heart pounding, and had trouble  
breathing? If so, you have some understanding of anxiety . But when the experiences and symptoms of fear and anxiety become disabling (uncontrollable  
and disrupting), mental health professionals may diagnose an anxiety disorder. Although twice as many women as men are diagnosed with anxiety  
disorders, men also suffer from this widespread disease. In fact, these disorders are among the most frequently occurring psychological disorders in the  
general population (Anxiety and Depression Association of America, 2016; Essau & Petermann, 2013; National Institute of Mental Health, [14.155]).  
Fortunately , they are among the easiest disorders to treat and offer some of the best chances for recovery (see Figure14.5 and Chapter 15).  
Figure 14.5 Coping with anxiety  
disordersDid you know that Emma Stone,  
2017 winner of the Best Actress Oscar for  
La La Land, experienced her first panic  
attack as a young child (Begley , 2017;  
Lang, 2016)? These attacks became so  
debilitating and frequent that she developed  
agoraphobia and could barely leave her  
home to go to school. Thanks to therapy  
and her acting career, she's since developed  
healthy coping styles and speaks openly  
about her illness and personal experiences,  
hoping to boost public awareness of  
psychological illness.  
Describing Anxiety Disorders  
In this section, we discuss three anxiety disorders: generalized anxiety disorder(GAD), panic disorder, and phobias(Figure14.6). Although we cover  
these disorders separately , their symptoms overlap, and they often occur together (Allan et al., [14.3]; Dibbets et al., [14.65]; Zinbarg et al., [14.250]).  
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Figure 14.6 The three major categories of anxiety disorders  
Generalized Anxiety Disorder  
Sufferers of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)experience persistent, uncontrollable, and free-floating, nonspecified anxiety . The fears and anxiety are  
referred to as “free-floating” because they're unrelated to any specific threat—thus the term “generalized” anxiety disorder. Sadly , the fears and anxieties  
of GAD are generally uncontrollable and chronic—lasting at least six months (Louie & Roberts, [14.131]; Szkodny & Newman, [14.224]). Because of  
persistent muscle tension and autonomic fear reactions, people with this disorder may develop headaches, heart palpitations, dizziness, and insomnia,  
making it even harder to cope with normal daily activities. The disorder affects twice as many women as men (American Psychiatric Association, [14.5];  
W atson & Greenberg, [14.239]).  
Panic Disorder  
Most of us have experienced feelings of intense panic, such as after narrowly missing a potentially fatal traffic collision. However , people with panic  
disorderendure repeated, sudden onsets of extreme terror and inexplicable panic attacks. Symptoms include severe heart palpitations, trembling,  
dizziness, difficulty breathing, and feelings of impending doom. The reactions are so intense that many sufferers believe they are having a heart attack.  
Panic disorder is diagnosed when several apparently spontaneous panic attacks lead to a persistent concern about future attacks. A common complication  
of panic disorder is agoraphobia, discussed in the next section.  
Phobias  
Just as most of us have experienced feelings of panic, we may also share a common fear of spiders, sharks, or snakes. However, people who suffer from  
phobiasexperience a persistent, intense, irrational fear and avoidance of a specificobject, activity , or situation. Their fears are so disabling that they  
significantly interfere with daily life. Although the person recognizes that the level of fear is irrational, the experience is still one of overwhelming  
anxiety , and a full-blown panic attack may follow . The fifth edition of the DSMdivides phobias into separate categories: agoraphobia, specific phobias,  
and social anxiety disorder (social phobia).  
People with agoraphobiarestrict their normal activities because they fear having a panic attack in crowded, enclosed, or wide-open places where they  
would be unable to receive help in an emergency . In severe cases, people with agoraphobia may refuse to leave the perceived safety of their homes.  
A specific phobiais a fear of a specific object or situation, such as needles, rats, spiders, or heights. Claustrophobia (fear of closed spaces) and  
acrophobia (fear of heights) are the specific phobias most often treated by therapists. People with specific phobias generally recognize that their fears are  
excessive and unreasonable, but they are unable to control their anxiety and will go to great lengths to avoid the feared stimulus.  
People with social anxiety disorder(formerly called social phobia) are irrationally fearful of embarrassing themselves in social situations. Fear of public  
speaking and of eating in public are the two most common social phobias. The fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliation may become so pervasive  
that normal life is disrupted. People with this disorder are also four times more likely to abuse alcohol (Buckner & T erlecki, [14.42]).  
As you may recall from our chapter opener, Jennifer Lawrence suffers from social anxiety disorder . Other famous people, including Britney Spears,  
Barbra Streisand, and Adele, also share this disorder, which can interfere with normal functioning. Ironically , for Jennifer Lawrence, being on stage  
actually relieves anxiety . Jennifer's mother remembers her as being curious about everything and having “a light within her .” When she entered school,  
however, the light went out. Jennifer says: “W e never knew what it was, a kind of social anxiety” (D'Aconti, [14.55]). Luckily , her struggles with anxiety  
subsided when she started acting. Jennifer recalls that moment in time: “On stage, my mother saw the change taking place in me. She saw my anxieties  
disappear . … I felt capable whereas before I felt good for nothing. This is why mom fought for me to become an actress” (cited in Harris, [14.90]).  
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Explaining Anxiety Disorders  
Why do people develop anxiety disorders? Research has focused on the roles of psychological, biological, and sociocultural processes (the  
biopsychosocial model) (Figure14.7).  
Figure 14.7 Anxiety disorders and the biopsychosocial modelThe biopsychosocial model takes into account the wide  
variety of factors than can contribute to anxiety disorders.  
Psychological Factors  
Researchers have identified two major psychological contributors to anxiety disorders:  
1.Faulty cognitive processes People with anxiety disorders may have habits of thinking, or cognitive processes, that make them prone to fear. These  
faulty cognitions, in turn, make them hypervigilant—meaning they constantly scan their environment for signs of danger and ignore signs of safety.  
Furthermore, they often magnify uncertain information and ordinary threats and failures and are hypersensitive to others' opinions of them (HelbigLang et al., [14.91]; Oglesby et al., [14.3]; Wild & Clark, [14.244]).  
2.Maladaptive learning In contrast to this cognitive explanation, learning theorists suggest that anxiety disorders result from inadvertent and improper  
conditioning (Duits et al., [14.67]; Kunze et al., [14.122]; van Meurs et al., [14.232]). As we discovered in Chapter 6, during classical conditioning, if  
a neutral stimulus (NS), such as a harmless spider, becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a sudden, frightening noise, it  
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned emotional response (CER)—in this case, fear. T o make matters worse, the person who  
experiences this conditioned fear often begins to actively avoid all spiders, which may eventually lead to a spider phobia. See Step-by-Step Diagram  
14.1.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 14.1 Conditioning and Phobias  
Classical conditioning combined with operant conditioning can lead to phobias. Consider the example of Little Albert's classically conditioned fear of  
rats, discussed in Chapter 6.  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
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Along with maladaptive learning through classical and operant conditioning, anxiety disorders may develop from modeling and imitation (e.g., Schindler  
et al., [14.194]). In fact, research suggests that this type of social learning makes anxiety disorders the most “contagious” of all psychological disorders  
(Dean, [14.58]). By comparing 385 sets of identical twins and 486 sets of fraternal twins, researchers found direct environmental (versus genetic)  
transmission from parents to offspring (Eley et al., [14.70]). Note that in this case the word “contagious” does not mean that we can catch anxiety  
disorders from a sneeze or cough, but rather that children “catch it” primarily by watching and modeling their anxious caregivers' behavior (see the  
photo). The role of social learning in the transmission of anxiety is well-established. But the good news for parents with anxiety disorders is that certain  
behaviors, such as monitoring your own anxiety and encouraging your children to take small, age-appropriate risks, can minimize the chances of passing  
it on to your children (Dean, [14.58]).  
Biological Factors  
Some researchers believe phobias reflect an evolutionary, genetic predisposition to fear things that were dangerous to our ancestors (Bas-Hoogendam et  
al., [14.18]; Mineka & Oehlberg, [14.148]; New & German, [14.160]). In addition, some people with panic disorder seem genetically predisposed toward  
an overreaction of the autonomic nervous system, further supporting arguments for a biological explanation.  
Given that women greatly outnumber men in diagnoses of anxiety disorders, biochemical research suggests that sex hormones, such as estrogen and  
progesterone, may be involved (Li & Graham, [14.128]). Further evidence for a biochemical disturbance comes from the fact that hyperventilation, as  
well as drugs such as caffeine and nicotine, can trigger a panic attack. Interestingly , recent research shows that disturbed sleep is linked to both anxiety  
disorders and chronic depression (W assing et al., [14.238]).  
Sociocultural Factors  
As expected, many sociocultural factors contribute to anxiety. For instance, research shows children who are psychologically abused—including bullying,  
severe insults, overwhelming demands, and isolation—are at greater risk for developing GAD and social anxiety disorder (Flett et al., [14.74]; Spinazzola  
et al., [14.212]).  
Research on cultural factors notes the sharp rise in anxiety disorders in the past 50 years, particularly in Western industrialized countries. Can you see  
how our fast-paced lives—along with our increased mobility , decreased job security , and decreased family support—might contribute to anxiety? Unlike  
the dangers early humans faced in our evolutionary history , today's threats are less identifiable and less immediate. This may in turn lead some people to  
become hypervigilant and predisposed to anxiety disorders.  
Further support for sociocultural influences on anxiety disorders is our recognition that they can have dramatically different forms in other cultures. Some  
Japanese, for instance, experience a type of social phobia called taijin kyofusho (TKS), a morbid dread of doing something to embarrass others. This  
disorder is quite different from the W estern version of social phobia, which centers on a fear of criticism and self-embarrassment.  
Retrieval Practice 14.2 Anxiety Disorders  
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Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will  
provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Label the three key anxiety disorders.  
2\.   
Persistent, uncontrollable, and free-floating, nonspecified anxiety might be diagnosed as ________.  
a. a generalized anxiety disorder  
b. a panic disorder  
c. a phobia  
d. all these options  
3\.   
In ________disorder, the individual suffers brief attacks of intense apprehension.  
a. phobic  
b. posttraumatic stress  
c. panic  
d. dissociative fugue  
4\.   
A persistent and intense, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation is known as ________.  
a. a panic disorder  
b. a phobia  
c. the “scared-cat” syndrome  
d. paranoia  
5\.   
In the Japanese social phobia called TKS, people fear that they will ________.  
a. evaluate others negatively  
b. embarrass themselves  
c. embarrass others  
d. be embarrassed by others  
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Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 6 (Learning), we discussed cognitive-social theory and its emphasis on the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior. In this chapter ,  
you learned that social learning theorists propose that some fears or anxieties may result from modeling and imitation. Explain how parents might  
develop fears concerning relatively uncommon events (such as child abductions by strangers) through social learning.  
.  
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14.3 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the symptoms, causal factors, and dangers of depressive and bipolar disorders.  
•Describedepressive disorders and bipolar disorders, and how they differ .  
•Summarizeresearch on the biological and psychosocial factors that contribute to depressive and bipolar  
disorders.  
Both depressive disorders and bipolar disorders are characterized by extreme disturbances in emotional states.  
Thus, both are sometimes referred to as mood disorders.  
Describing Depressive and Bipolar Disorders  
W e all experience shifts in our emotions on a somewhat regular basis—you may experience intense sadness when  
you fail a critical exam and high elation when you receive an A in a different course. Such emotional shifts are  
generally linked to life experiences, but when the shifts occur for no apparent reason and the extreme emotions are  
prolonged, they may qualify as depressive disorders.  
Major Depressive Disorder  
Along with experiencing normal mood changes, almost everyone also feels depressed at some point in his or her  
lifetime—especially following the loss of a job, end of a relationship, or death of a loved one. But people suffering  
from major depressive disorder (MDD)may become so deeply sad and discouraged that they have trouble  
sleeping, lose (or gain) significant weight, and feel so fatigued that they cannot go to work or school or even comb  
their hair and brush their teeth.  
Individuals with MDD also have trouble concentrating, making decisions, and being social. In addition, they often  
have difficulty recognizing common “thinking errors,” such as tunnel vision,which involves focusing on only  
certain aspects of a situation (usually the negative parts) and ignoring other interpretations or alternatives. Do you  
see how this type of depressed thinking would deepen depression and possibly even lead to suicide (Connor et al.,  
[14.52]; Polanco-Roman et al., [14.173]; Sue et al., [14.219])?  
Bipolar Disorder  
When depression is unipolar, and the depressive episode ends, the person generally returns to a normal emotional  
level. People with bipolar disorders, however , rebound to the opposite state, known as mania, which is  
characterized by unreasonable elation and hyperactivity (Figure14.8). During a manic episode, individuals often  
feel unusually “high” and optimistic, and experience unrealistically high self-esteem and grandiose beliefs about  
their abilities and powers.  
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Figure 14.8 Depressive versus bipolar  
disordersIf depressive disorders and bipolar  
disorders were depicted on a graph, they  
might look something like this. Remember  
that only in bipolar disorders do people  
experience manic episodes.  
Although mania feels good at first, it has serious and often dangerous side effects, such as becoming aggressive  
and engaging in reckless behaviors, including inappropriate sexual activity , gambling away savings, giving away  
valuable possessions, or going on wild spending sprees. Also, during a manic episode, people are often hyperactive  
and may not sleep for days at a time without becoming apparently fatigued. Thinking is faster than normal and can  
change abruptly to new topics, showing “rapid flight of ideas.” Speech is also rapid (“pressured speech”), making  
it difficult for others to get a word in edgewise. A manic episode may last a few days or a few months, and it  
generally ends abruptly . The ensuing depressive episode generally lasts three times as long as the mania (Leigh,  
[14.124]; Ray , [14.179]).  
The lifetime risk for bipolar disorder is low—between 0.5 and 1.6%—but it can be one of the most debilitating and  
lethal disorders. Due in part to the impulsivity associated with this disorder, the suicide rate is between 10 and 20%  
among sufferers (Depp et al., [14.60]; Ketter & Miller, [14.1 11]).  
T o end on a more positive note, if you're suffering from a depressive or bipolar disorder, you are not alone. Many  
successful writers, scientists, and musicians suffer from depression. And television journalist Jane Pauley , awardwinning actors Carrie Fisher and Catherine Zeta Jones, and action hero Jean-Claude V an Damme have all been  
diagnosed with bipolar disorder . Thanks to their courage and willingness to publicly discuss their lives, these  
famous figures have increased support, understanding, and funding for both depressive and bipolar disorders, as  
well as decreasing the associated stigma and stereotypes (Figure14.9).  
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Figure 14.9 Carrie Frances  
Fisher (1956–2016)—a  
mental health heroThe  
original Princess Leia of the  
famous Star W arsfilm series,  
Carrie Fisher, is remembered  
today as a famous and  
beloved Hollywood star .  
She's also celebrated as a  
mental health hero for her  
groundbreaking stance  
against the stigma of mental  
illness. Fisher told the  
Huffington Post, “At times,  
being bipolar can be an allconsuming challenge,  
requiring a lot of stamina and  
even more courage, so if  
you're living with this illness  
and functioning at all, it's  
something to be proud of, not  
ashamed of” (Holmes,  
[14.92]).  
Explaining Depressive and Bipolar Disorders  
As we've seen, depressive and bipolar disorders are characterized by extreme disturbances in emotional states.  
What causes these extreme emotions? In this section, we will look at the biological, psychological, and  
sociocultural factors that contribute to depressive and bipolar disorders.  
Biological Factors  
Several biological factors are implicated in both depressive and bipolar disorder, including neurotransmitters,  
genes, and brain structure and function. For example, recent research points to imbalances of neurotransmitters,  
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including GABA, serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, as possible causes of mood disorders (Morgan,  
[14.152]; Peacock et al., [14.169]; Y in et al., [14.247]). And both depressive disorders and bipolar disorders are  
sometimes treated with antidepressants, which affect the amount or functioning of these same neurotransmitters.  
Another biochemical factor is suggested by a surprising link between depression and what we eat (Figure14.10).  
Perhaps even more surprising is the recent finding that psilocybin, a hallucinogen from “magic” mushrooms, can  
help reduce the symptoms of depression (Mithoefer et al., [14.149]). Can you see how the chemicals in such foods  
and drugs might lead to physiological changes in the brain and body?  
Figure 14.10 Junk food and depression?  
Surprisingly , some studies have found that  
people who regularly eat junk food and  
commercially produced baked goods (such  
as croissants and doughnuts) are at  
increased risk of developing depression  
(Gangwisch et al., [14.77]; SánchezV illegas et al., [14.191]).  
Along with neurotransmitter and other biochemical effects, genes appear to contribute to mood disorders (Boulos  
et al., [14.34]; Post et al., [14.174]; Strachan et al., [14.216]). Research shows that both depressive and bipolar  
disorder may be inherited (Antypa et al., [14.8]; Jacobs et al., [14.103]; Pandolfo et al., [14.167]). Other research,  
from an evolutionary perspective, suggests that moderate depression may be a normal and healthy adaptive  
response to a very real loss, such as the death of a loved one, because it helps us conserve energy and allows us to  
step back and reassess our goals (Beck & Bredemeier, [14.22]; Neumann & W alter , [14.158]). Clinical, severe  
depression may just be an extreme version of this generally adaptive response.  
Finally , brain structures and functions also play a critical role. Many studies have found diminished brain activity  
in depression and increased activity during the manic phase of bipolar disorder (Brady et al., [14.35]; Cantisani et  
al., [14.46]; Carlson et al., [14.47]). Given the strong American (and international) love for high-impact  
professional sports, one of the most disturbing topics related to brain functioning is the mounting evidence that  
athletes who play these sports are at risk of developing depressive and bipolar disorders and other problems as they  
age. For more details, see the following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Are Head Injuries Related to Depression and Other  
Psychological Disorders?  
Concussions, or mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBIs), are common occurrences for athletes, military personnel,  
accident victims, and even ordinary people engaging in everyday sports and activities. The symptoms vary but  
typically include difficulty concentrating, sleep disturbances, fatigue, irritability , headaches, vertigo, depression,  
and/or anxiety (Broshek et al., [14.40]). Less common but more serious reactions occur after repeated concussions  
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and brain trauma. Professional athletes often experience numerous concussions and may develop chr onic traumatic  
encephalopathy(CTE), a progressive, degenerative brain disease. Sadly , individuals with CTE are more likely to  
develop depressive and bipolar disorders, as well as Parkinson's Disease, PTSD, schizophrenia, stroke, and other  
serious problems (Bajwa et al., [14.14]; Montenigro et al., [14.151]; Strain et al., [14.217]). CTE can even lead to  
suicide (Figure14.11).  
Figure 14.11 Brain damage and professional sportsJunior  
Seau, who played in the NFL for 20 years, died by suicide  
from a gunshot wound to his chest in 2012 at the age of 43.  
Later studies confirmed that he suffered from CTE.  
Despite this depressing opener, there is some good news. Researchers have identified for the first time how head  
injuries can alter genes, leading to serious brain diseases (Meng et al., [14.144]). This group of researchers first  
trained 20 rats to escape from a maze, a small tunnel-like structure commonly used to study spatial learning and  
memory in rodents. Next, they produced brain injuries by randomly choosing 10 of the 20 rats and injecting them  
with a special fluid. The other 10 rats did not receive the injections. When they later tested the rats in the same  
maze, it took the brain-injured rats about 25% longer to solve the maze than the noninjured rats. The researchers  
then examined the genes from five animals in each group and found major changes in the genes of the injured  
group (University of California—Los Angeles, [14.231]).  
Why is this good news? Many of the rats' altered genes have counterparts in humans, and the study identified  
specific genes that are affected by traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). Knowing which genes are affected identifies  
them as the best targets for better diagnosis and possible future treatments for several neurological and  
psychological disorders.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Meng et al., [14.144]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or  
experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
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•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were  
not randomly assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elationalresearch, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is  
presented in most textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then  
comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of  
scientific research.  
Psychological Factors  
Psychological explanations of depression and bipolar disorder come from all the major perspectives. For instance,  
the psychoanalytic approach sees depression as the result of anger turned inward or as the aftermath of  
experiencing a real or imagined loss, which is internalized as guilt, shame, self-hatred, and ultimately self-blame.  
The cognitive perspective explains depression as caused, at least in part, by negative thinking patterns, including a  
tendency to ruminate, or obsess, about problems (Arora et al., [14.13]; Izadpanah et al., [14.101]; T opper et al.,  
[14.229]). As you can see in Figure14.12, this pattern of depressive thinking may , in turn, lead to a vicious, selfperpetuating cycle. The humanistic school says that depression results when a person demands perfection of  
himself or herself or when positive growth is blocked (McCormack & Joseph, [14.140]; Short & Thomas,  
[14.206]).  
Figure 14.12 Depression as a vicious cycleHave you heard that:  
Depression is a snake that bites its own tail? This somewhat common  
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expression reflects cognitive theories that suggest depression results  
from a vicious cycle of destructive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.  
Following one or more stressful, negative events (Step 1), people may  
ruminate and obsessively think about their personal failures and  
problems, while also worrying about events that are generally outside  
their control (Step 2). As a result of these persistent, negative thoughts,  
individuals tend to develop feelings of hopelessness, helplessness,  
sadness, and low self-esteem (Step 3). These emotional problems then  
generally lead to behavior problems, including decreased activities,  
social withdrawal, and decreased productivity (Step 4). Do you  
recognize how this cycle leads to depression (Step 5), and how other  
future stressors will inevitably add to and perpetuate this cycle? (See  
Chapter 15 for tips on how to break this cycle.)  
From the behavioral perspective, learning experiences also play a critical role. According to the learned  
helplessnesstheory (Seligman, [14.200], [14.201]), depression occurs when people (and other animals) become  
resigned to the idea that they are helpless to escape from a painful situation because of a history of repeated  
failures. For humans, learned helplessness may be particularly likely to trigger depression if the person attributes  
failure to causes that are internal (“my own weakness”), stable (“this weakness is long-standing and unchanging”),  
and global (“this weakness is a problem in lots of settings”) (Barnum et al., [14.17]; Smalheiser et al., [14.208];  
Travers et al., [14.230]).  
Sociocultural Factors  
In contrast to the biological and psychological theories, sociocultural explanations of depression and bipolar  
disorder focus on environmental stressors (such as poverty and unemployment), disturbances in interpersonal  
relationships, and histories of abuse or assault (Frodl et al., [14.76]; Holshausen et al., [14.93]; Massing-Schaffer et  
al., [14.137]). A surprising finding in the area of social factors is that high Internet and cell phone use are linked  
with mental health problems, including depression and anxiety (Panova & Lleras, [14.168]). This is particularly  
true when they're used to avoid negative experiences or feelings. However, no link was found if they're used  
merely to escape boredom.  
Summing Up  
Before going on, keep in mind that depression is more than a mental disorder. It also affects the entire body , which  
might help explain why people suffering from depression often feel so extremely tired and fatigued, as well as why  
they're at increased risk for cancer , cardiovascular disease, and dying younger (Batty et al., [14.21]; JiménezFernández et al., [14.108]). One of the major culprits appears to be inflammation and/or oxidative stress—a bodily  
imbalance that inhibits the ability to destroy toxic substances (Lindqvist et al., [14.127]; Liu et al., [14.129];  
Peacock et al., [14.169]). The good news is that treatment with antidepressants can significantly reduce or remove  
these negative effects and greatly improve overall functioning (Black et al., [14.30]; Data-Franco et al., [14.57]).  
However, note that suicide is a particular danger associated with both depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. If  
you or someone you know seem at risk, please review the myths, danger signs, and tips for what to do and what not  
to do discussed earlier in this chapter .  
Retrieval Practice 14.3 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders  
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Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
How are depressive disorders different from bipolar disorder?  
2\.   
When experiencing ________, the individual is typically highly excited and impulsive and has unrealistically high  
self-esteem.  
a. hyperarousal  
b. mania  
c. elation-excess syndrome (EES)  
d. pituitary overload  
3\.   
Depressive and bipolar disorders are sometimes treated with ________, which affect the amount or functioning of  
norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin in the brain.  
a. antidepressants  
b. antipsychotics  
c. mood congruence drugs  
d. none of these options  
4\.   
According to the theory known as ________, when faced with a painful situation from which there is no escape,  
people enter a state of helplessness and resignation.  
a. autonomic resignation  
b. helpless resignation  
c. resigned helplessness  
d. learned helplessness  
5\.   
Internal, stable, and global attributions for failure or unpleasant circumstances are associated with ________  
disorders.  
a. anxiety  
b. delusional  
c. depressive  
d. bipolar  
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Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 3 (Stress and Health Psychology), you learned that some people have an internal locus of contr ol(a  
belief that they can influence or control major factors in their lives), and some people have an external locus of  
contr ol(believing that chance or outside forces beyond their control determine their fate). In this chapter, you read  
about the learned helplessnessmodel of depression. Explain how locus of control and learned helplessness are  
related to each other and to depression.  
.  
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14.4 Schizophrenia  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review how psychologists define, classify, and explain schizophrenia.  
•Identifyschizophrenia and its common characteristics.  
•Comparethe positive versus negative symptoms of schizophrenia.  
•Summarizethe biological and psychosocial factors that contribute to schizophrenia.  
Imagine that your 17-year-old son's behavior has changed dramatically over the past few months. He has gone  
from being actively involved in sports and clubs to suddenly quitting all activities and refusing to go to school. He  
now talks to himself—mumbling and yelling out at times—and no longer regularly showers or washes his hair.  
Recently he announced, “The voices are telling me to jump out the window” (Kotowski, [14.117]).  
This description is taken from the true case history of a patient who suffers from schizophrenia. As shown in this  
example and discussed in this section, people with schizophrenia have major disturbances in perception(seeing or  
hearing things that others don't), language(bizarre words and meanings), thought(impaired logic), emotion  
(exaggerated or blunted), and/or behavior(peculiar movements and social withdrawal). Furthermore, some may  
have serious problems caring for themselves, relating to others, and holding a job. The DSMplaces schizophrenia  
within the category of “schizophrenic spectrum and other psychotic disorders.” Recall that psychosis refers to a  
serious loss of contact with reality . In extreme cases, the illness is so severe that it's considered a psychosis, and  
treatment may require institutional or custodial care.  
Schizophrenia is a widespread and devastating group of psychological disorders. Approximately 1% of people in  
any given adult population will develop it in their lifetime, and approximately half of all people who are admitted  
to mental hospitals are diagnosed with this disorder (Brown & Lau, [14.41]; Castle & Buckley , [14.48]; Gottesman,  
[14.85]). Schizophrenia usually emerges between the late teens and the mid-30s and only rarely prior to  
adolescence or after age 45. It seems to be equally prevalent in men and women, but it's generally more severe and  
strikes earlier in men (Brown & Lau, [14.41]; Castle & Buckley , [14.48]; Silber , [14.207]; Zorrilla et al., [14.251]).  
Many people confuse schizophrenia with dissociative identity disorder, which is sometimes referred to as splitor  
multiple personality disorder. Schizophreniameans “split mind,” but when Eugen Bleuler coined the term in 1911,  
he was referring to the fragmenting of thought processes and emotions, not of personalities (Neale et al., [14.157]).  
As we discuss later in this chapter, dissociative identity disorder is popularly referred to as having a “split  
personality”—the rare and controversial condition of having more than one distinct personality (see the Myth  
Busters).  
Myth Busters Do People with Schizophrenia Have Multiple Personalities?  
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As shown in this cartoon and as portrayed in many popular movies and television shows, schizophrenia is  
commonly confused with multiple personality disorder(now known as dissociative identity disorder). This  
widespread error persists in part because of confusing terminology. Literally translated, schizophr eniameans “split  
mind,” referring to a split from reality that shows itself in disturbed perceptions, language, thought, emotions,  
and/or behavior . In contrast, dissociative identity disorder refers to the condition in which two or more distinct  
personalities exist within the same person at different times. People with schizophrenia have only one personality .  
Why does this matter? Confusing schizophrenia with multiple personalities is not only technically incorrect, it also  
trivializes the devastating effects of both disorders, which may include severe anxiety , social isolation,  
unemployment, homelessness, substance abuse, clinical depression, and even suicide (Arkowitz & Lilienfeld,  
[14.10]; Lasalvia et al., [14.123]; Lilienfeld et al., [14.125]).  
Symptoms of Schizophrenia  
Schizophrenia, as mentioned, is characterized by a disturbance in one or more of the following areas: perception,  
language, thought, affect(emotions), and/or behavior.  
Perception  
The senses of people with schizophrenia may be either enhanced or blunted. The filtering and selection processes  
that allow most people to concentrate on whatever they choose are impaired, and sensory stimulation is jumbled  
and distorted. People with schizophrenia may experience hallucinations—false, imaginary sensory perceptions that  
occur without external stimuli. Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices and sounds) are among the most commonly  
noted and reported symptoms of schizophrenia. Individuals with schizophrenia may also experience visual  
hallucinations (seeing things that others cannot see) and olfactory hallucinations (smelling things others do not  
smell). In other words, people with schizophrenia may hear, see, and smell things that aren't real.  
Are these voices and visions dangerous? On rare occasions, people with schizophrenia hurt others in response to  
their distorted perceptions. But a person with schizophrenia is more likely to be self-destructive and suicidal than  
violent toward others.  
Language and Thought  
For people with schizophrenia, words lose their usual meanings and associations, logic is impaired, and thoughts  
are disorganized and bizarre. When language and thought disturbances are mild, the individual jumps from topic to  
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topic. W ith more severe disturbances, the person jumbles phrases and words together (into a “word salad”) or  
creates artificial words. The most common—and frightening—thought disturbance experienced by people with  
schizophrenia is lack of contact with reality (psychosis).  
Delusions—false, imaginary beliefs that are maintained despite clear evidence to the contrary—are also common  
in people with schizophrenia (see the cartoon). W e all experience exaggerated thoughts from time to time, such as  
thinking a friend is trying to avoid us, but the delusions of schizophrenia are much more extreme. If someone  
falsely believes that the postman who routinely delivers mail to his house every afternoon is a co-conspirator in a  
plot to kill him, it will likely qualify as a delusion of persecution,or paranoia. In delusions of grandeur, people  
believe that they are someone very important, perhaps Jesus Christ or the Queen of England. In delusions of  
contr ol,people believe that their thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside or alien forces—“the CIA is  
controlling my thoughts.”  
Emotion  
Changes in emotion usually occur in people with schizophrenia. In some cases, emotions are exaggerated and  
fluctuate rapidly . At other times, they become blunted. Some people with schizophrenia have flattened affect—  
almost no emotional response of any kind.  
Behavior  
Disturbances in behavior may take the form of unusual actions that have special meaning to the sufferer . For  
example, one patient massaged his head repeatedly to “clear it” of unwanted thoughts. People with schizophrenia  
also may become catalepticand assume a nearly immobile stance for an extended period.  
Classifying Schizophrenia  
For many years, researchers divided schizophrenia into five subtypes: paranoid, catatonic, disorganized,  
undifferentiated, and r esidual. Critics suggested that this system does not differentiate in terms of prognosis, cause,  
or response to treatment and that the undifferentiated type was merely a catchall for cases that are difficult to  
diagnose (Castle & Buckley , [14.48]; McNally , [14.143]). For these reasons, researchers have proposed an  
alternative classification system:  
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1.Positive schizophrenia symptoms are additions to or exaggerations of normal functions. Delusions and  
hallucinations are examples of positive symptoms. (In this case, and as discussed in Chapter 6, “positive”  
means that “something is added” above and beyond normal levels.)  
2.Negative schizophrenia symptoms include the loss or absence of normal functions. Impaired attention,  
limited or toneless speech, flat or blunted affect, and social withdrawal are all classic negative symptoms of  
schizophrenia. (Recall again that “negative” is notthe same as unpleasant or bad. It means that “something is  
taken away .” In this case daily functioning is “taken away” because it's so far below normal levels.)  
Positive symptoms are more common when schizophrenia develops rapidly, whereas negative symptoms are more  
often found in slow-developing schizophrenia. Positive symptoms are associated with better adjustment before the  
onset and a better prognosis for recovery .  
Explaining Schizophrenia  
Because schizophrenia comes in many different forms, It's likely to be associated with multiple biological causes  
and prenatal and environmental influences. Let's look at biological contributions first.  
Biological Factors  
Most biological explanations of schizophrenia focus on genetics, biochemistry, and brain abnormalities.  
•Genetics Current research indicates that the risk for schizophrenia increases with genetic similarity (Arnedo et  
al., [14.1 1]; Gottesman, [14.85]; Reble et al., [14.180]). This means that people who share more genes with a  
person who has schizophrenia are more likely to develop the disorder (Figure14.13).  
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Figure 14.13 Genetics and schizophrenia  
As dramatically shown by this figure, the lifetime risk of  
developing schizophrenia is strongly linked with genetic  
inheritance. Is this a positive or negative correlation?  
•Biochemistry Recent research suggests that disruptions in gonadal and other hormones may play a role in  
schizophrenia (Riecher-Rössler , [14.183]). According to the dopamine hypothesis, overactivity of certain  
dopamine neurons in the brain causes some forms of schizophrenia (Gilani et al., [14.79]; Howes et al., [14.95];  
Stopper & Floresco, [14.215]). This hypothesis is based on two observations. First, administering  
amphetamines increases the amount of dopamine and can produce (or worsen) some symptoms of  
schizophrenia, especially in people with a genetic predisposition to the disorder. Second, drugs that reduce  
dopamine activity in the brain reduce or eliminate some symptoms of schizophrenia.  
•Brain abnormalities A third area of research in schizophrenia explores links to abnormalities in brain function  
and structure. Researchers, for example, have found larger cerebral ventricles (fluid-filled spaces in the brain)  
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and right hemisphere dysfunction in some people with schizophrenia (Guo et al., [14.89]; W oodward &  
Heckers, [14.246]; Y oung & Wimmer , [14.248]). Also, some people with chronic schizophrenia have lower  
levels of activity in specific areas of the brain (Figure14.14).  
Figure 14.14 Brain activity in  
schizophreniaUsing these positron emission  
tomography (PET) scans, compare the normal  
levels of brain activity (upper left) with those of  
a person with schizophrenia (upper right), and  
then with those of a person with depression  
(lower left). W armer colors (reds, yellows)  
indicate increased brain activity , whereas cooler  
colors (blues and greens) indicate decreased  
activity .  
Prenatal and Other Environmental Influences  
Clearly , biological factors play a key role in schizophrenia. However, consider that, in a pair of identical twins, if  
one twin has schizophrenia, the other has about a 50% chance of suffering from the disease at some point. This  
tells us that nongenetic factors must contribute the other 50%. Furthermore, as we've seen throughout this text,  
epigenetic(meaning “in addition to genetic”) factors often influence whether or not specific genes will be  
expressed. Most psychologists believe there are several possible environmental and psychosocial contributors,  
including prenatal stress and viral infections, birth complications, low birth weight, immune responses, maternal  
malnutrition, and advanced paternal age (Kneeland & Fatemi, [14.114]; Meyer, [14.147]; W ebb, [14.240]).  
According to the diathesis-stress modelof schizophrenia, stress plays an essential role in triggering schizophrenic  
episodes in people with an inherited predisposition (or diathesis) toward the disease (Brown & Lau, [14.41]; Frau  
et al., [14.75]; Howes et al., [14.95]). In line with this model, children who experience severe trauma before age 16  
are three times more likely than other people to develop schizophrenia (Bentall et al., [14.25]; DeRosse et al.,  
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[14.63]). People who experience stressful living environments, including poverty , unemployment, and crowding,  
are also at increased risk (Brown & Lau, [14.41]; Kirkbride et al., [14.113]; Sweeney et al., [14.223]).  
How should we evaluate the different theories about the causes of schizophrenia? Like virtually all psychological  
disorders, nature and nurture interact. Most scientists believe schizophrenia is probably the result of a combination  
of known and unknown interacting factors (Figure14.15).  
Figure 14.15 The biopsychosocial model and schizophrenia  
Retrieval Practice 14.4 Schizophrenia  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Define schizophr enia.  
2\.   
In extreme cases, schizophrenia is a form of ________, a term describing general lack of contact with reality .  
a. multiple personality disorder  
b. psychosis  
c. borderline polar psychosis  
d. all of these options  
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3\.   
________refers to “split mind,” whereas ________refers to “split personality .”  
a. Psychosis; neurosis  
b. Insanity; multiple personalities  
c. Schizophrenia; dissociative identity disorder (DID)  
d. Paranoia; borderline  
4\.   
Perceptions for which there are no appropriate external stimuli are called ________, and the most common type  
among people suffering from schizophrenia is ________.  
a. hallucinations; auditory  
b. hallucinations; visual  
c. delusions; auditory  
d. delusions; visual  
5\.   
According to ________, people inherit a predisposition that increases their risk for mental disorders if they are  
exposed to certain extremely stressful life experiences.  
a. the stress-reactivity model  
b. the diathesis-stress model  
c. the envirogenetics hypothesis  
d. none of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 4 (Sensation and Perception), you discovered that sensationand perceptionwork together to help us  
understand the world around us. In this chapter, you learned that these two processes can become disordered in a  
person suffering with schizophrenia. Explain how some symptoms in schizophrenia may arise from problems with  
sensation and perception.  
.  
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14.5 Other Disorders  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the main features of obsessive-compulsive, dissociative, and personality disorders.  
•Identifyobsessive-compulsive disorder and its major symptoms.  
•Describedissociative disorders.  
•Discusspersonality disorders, including antisocial (ASPD) and borderline (BPD).  
Having discussed anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and schizophrenia, we now explore three additional disorders:  
obsessive-compulsive, dissociative, and personality disorders.  
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD )  
Do you occasionally worry about whether or not you locked your doors and sometimes feel compelled to run back  
and check? Most people do. However, people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)experience persistent,  
unwanted, fearful thoughts (obsessions) and/or irresistible urges to perform repetitive and/or ritualized behaviors  
(compulsions) to help relieve the anxiety created by the obsession. In adults, women are affected at a slightly  
higher rate than men, whereas men are more commonly affected in childhood (American Psychiatric Association,  
[14.5]).  
Common examples of obsessions are fear of germs, fear of being hurt or of hurting others, and troubling religious  
or sexual thoughts. Examples of compulsions are repeatedly checking, counting, cleaning, washing all or specific  
body parts, putting things in a certain order, and hoarding (Berman et al., [14.26]; Bottesi et al., [14.33]; De Putter  
et al., [14.62]). As mentioned before, everyone worries and sometimes double-checks, but people with OCD have  
these thoughts and do these rituals for at least an hour or more each day , often longer .  
Imagine what it would be like to worry so obsessively about germs that you compulsively wash your hands  
hundreds of times a day , until they are raw and bleeding. Most sufferers of OCD realize that their actions are  
senseless. But when they try to stop the behavior, they experience mounting anxiety , which is relieved only by  
giving in to the compulsions. Given that numerous biological and psychological factors contribute to OCD, it is  
most often treated with a combination of drugs, cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), and remediation therapy  
(Bennett, [14.24]; Emslie et al., [14.71]; van Passel, [14.233]). See Chapter 15 and Figure14.16.  
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Figure 14.16 Managing  
OCDMany celebrities suffer from  
OCD, including singer/actor  
Justin T imberlake (pictured here),  
soccer star David Beckham, and  
actors Megan Fox, Cameron Diaz,  
and Leonardo DiCaprio.  
Fortunately , people can learn to  
manage the symptoms of OCD,  
through therapy and/or  
medication, and lead highly  
productive and fulfilling lives.  
Dissociative Disorders  
If you've ever been daydreaming while driving home from your college campus, and then could not remember  
making one single turn, you may have experienced a normal form of dissociation, meaning a mild disconnection  
from your immediate surroundings.  
The most dramatic extremes of this type of detachment are the dissociative disorders, characterized by a sudden  
break (dissociation) in conscious awareness, self-identity , and/or memory . Note that this is a disconnection or  
detachment from immediate surroundings or from physical or emotional experience. It is very different from the  
loss of contact with reality seen in psychosis (Figure14.17). There are several forms of dissociative disorders,  
including dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder (DID). However, all are characterized by a  
splitting apart (a dis-association) of critical aspects of experience from memory or consciousness.  
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Figure 14.17 Dissociation as an escapeA common factor in dissociative  
disorders is the need to escape and cope with extreme stress (Spiegel et al.,  
[14.21 1]). Imagine witnessing a loved one's death in a horrible car accident.  
Can you see how your mind might cope by blocking out all memory of the  
event?  
The most controversial, and least common, dissociative disorder is dissociative identity disorder (DID)—  
previously known as multiple personality disorder (MPD). An individual with this disorder has at least two  
separate and distinct personalities, or identities(Figure14.18). Each personality has unique memories, behaviors,  
and social relationships. Transition from one personality to another occurs suddenly , and is often triggered by  
psychological stress and trauma (Brand et al., [14.36]; Huntjens et al., [14.99]). T ypically , there is a “core”  
personality , who has no knowledge or awareness of the alternate personalities but is often aware of lost memories  
and lost periods of time. The disorder is diagnosed about equally among men and women (American Psychiatric  
Association, [14.5]).  
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Figure 14.18 A personal  
account of DIDHerschel  
W alker , Pro Bowl NFL football  
player, Olympic bobsledder ,  
and business and family man,  
now suggests that all of the  
people who played these roles  
were his “alters,” or alternate  
personalities. He has been  
diagnosed with the  
controversial dissociative  
identity disor der (DID).  
Although some have suggested  
that the disorder helped him  
succeed as a professional  
athlete, it played havoc with his  
personal life. He's now in  
treatment and has written a  
book, Breaking Free, hoping to  
change the public's image of  
DID.  
DID is a controversial diagnosis. Some experts suggest that many cases are faked or can be attributed to fantasyprone individuals, false memories, or an unconscious need to please a therapist (Arkowitz & Lilienfeld, [14.10];  
L ynn et al., [14.133]; Merckelbach et al., [14.145]). In contrast, a recent study of women with genuine diagnoses of  
DID, female actors asked to simulate DID, women with PTSD, and healthy controls supported previous findings  
that DID is rooted in traumatic experiences, such as neglect or abuse in childhood (V issia et al., [14.236]).  
Personality Disorders  
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What would happen if the characteristics of someone's personality were so inflexible and maladaptive that they  
significantly impaired that person's ability to function? This is what occurs with personality disorders. Several  
types of personality disorders are included in the fifth edition of the DSM, but here we will focus on antisocial  
personality disorder (ASPD) and borderline personality disorder (BPD) (American Psychiatric Association,  
[14.5]).  
Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD )  
People with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)—sometimes called psychopathsor sociopaths—are typically  
egocentric and exhibit a lack of conscience, remorse, or empathy for others. They're also manipulative, deceitful,  
and willing to use others for personal gain. These behaviors typically begin in childhood or early adolescence and  
continue through adulthood. They also lie so far outside the ethical and legal standards of society that many  
consider ASPD the most serious of all psychological disorders.  
Unlike people with anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and schizophrenia, those with this diagnosis feel little  
personal distress (and may not be motivated to change). And, as shown in Figure14.19, the maladaptive behaviors  
of those with ASPD often cause considerable harm to others (e.g., Baskin-Sommers et al., [14.19]; Brem et al.,  
[14.37]; Newcorn et al., [14.159]). Individuals with ASPD typically act impulsively , without giving thought to the  
consequences. They are usually poised when confronted with their destructive behavior and feel contempt for  
anyone they are able to manipulate. Moreover, they typically change jobs and relationships suddenly , and often  
have a history of truancy from school or of being expelled for destructive behavior. Surprisingly , people with  
antisocial personalities can be charming and persuasive, and they often have remarkably good insight into the  
needs and weaknesses of other people.  
Figure 14.19 Famous people with  
ASPDSerial killers like Jeffrey  
Dahmer (pictured here) and  
Charles Manson are often seen as  
classic examples of people with  
ASPD. However, most people who  
have this disorder harm others in  
less dramatic ways—as crooked  
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politicians or ruthless businessmen,  
such as the character portrayed by  
Michael Douglas in the movie W all  
Street,for instance.  
T win and adoption studies suggest a possible genetic predisposition to ASPD (Dhamija et al., [14.64]; Rosenström  
et al., [14.188]). Researchers also have found abnormally low autonomic activity during stress, right hemisphere  
abnormalities, reduced gray matter in the frontal lobes, and biochemical disturbances in people with ASPD (Jiang  
et al., [14.107]; Kumari et al., [14.121]; Smith et al., [14.209]). For example, MRI brain scans of criminals  
currently in prison for violent crimes, such as rape, murder, or attempted murder , and showing little empathy and  
remorse for their crimes, reveal reduced gray matter volume in the prefrontal cortex (Gregory et al., [14.86]).  
Evidence also exists for environmental or psychological causes. People with antisocial personality disorder often  
come from homes characterized by severely abusive parenting styles, emotional deprivation, harsh and inconsistent  
disciplinary practices, residential mobility, and antisocial parental behavior (Crego & W idiger , [14.53]; Dargis et  
al., [14.56]; Mok et al., [14.150]). Still other studies show a strong interaction between both heredity and  
environment (Dhamija et al., [14.64]; Rosenström et al., [14.188]).  
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD )  
Mary's troubles first began in adolescence. She began to miss curfew , was fr equently truant, and her grades  
declined sharply . Mary later became pr omiscuous and prostituted herself several times to get drug money …. She  
also quickly fell in love and overly idealized new friends. But when they quickly (and inevitably) disappointed her ,  
she would angrily cast them aside …. Mary's problems, coupled with a preoccupation with inflicting pain on  
herself (by cutting and burning) and persistent thoughts of suicide, eventually led to her admittance to a  
psychiatric hospital at age 26 (Kring et al.,[14.1 18], pp. 354–355).  
Mary's experiences are all classic symptoms of borderline personality disorder (BPD). The core features of this  
disorder include a pervasive pattern of instability in emotions, relationships, and self-image, along with impulsive  
and self-destructive behaviors, such as truancy , promiscuity , drinking, gambling, and eating sprees (Figure14.20).  
In addition, people with BPD may attempt suicide and sometimes engage in self-mutilating (“cutting”) behaviors  
(Calati & Courtet, [14.44]; Khan et al., [14.112]; Sher et al., [14.204]).  
Figure 14.20 Girl InterruptedIn this film, the  
Angelina Jolie character portrays several  
symptoms of BPD, as well as strong  
antisocial characteristics. The two personality  
disorders are often comorbid, meaning they  
occur together .  
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Those with BPD also tend to see themselves and everyone else in absolute terms—as either perfect or worthless.  
Constantly seeking reassurance from others, they may quickly erupt in anger at the slightest sign of disapproval. As  
you might expect, this disorder is typically marked by a long history of broken friendships, divorces, and lost jobs.  
In short, people with this disorder appear to have a deep well of intense loneliness and a chronic fear of  
abandonment. Unfortunately , given their troublesome personality traits, friends, lovers, and even family members  
and therapists often do “abandon” them—thus creating a tragic self-fulfilling prophecy. Sadly , this disorder is  
among the most commonly diagnosed and functionally disabling of all personality disorders (Arntz, [14.12];  
Gunderson & Links, [14.88]; Rizvi & Salters-Pedneault, [14.185]). The good news is that BPD can be reliably  
diagnosed, and it does respond to professional intervention—particularly in young people (Bateman & Fonagy,  
[14.20]; Edel et al., [14.69]; Rizvi et al., [14.184]).  
What causes BPD? Some research points to environmental factors, such as a childhood history of neglect,  
emotional deprivation, and/or physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, and trauma (Bichescu-Burian et al., [14.28];  
Chesin et al., 2015; Hunt et al., [14.98]). From a biological perspective, BPD also tends to run in families, and  
some data suggest that it is a result of impaired functioning of the brain's frontal lobes and limbic system, areas that  
control impulsive behaviors (Denny et al., [14.59]; Soloff et al., [14.210]; V isintin et al., [14.235]). For instance,  
research using neuroimaging reveals that people with BPD show more activity in parts of the brain associated with  
the experience of negative emotions, coupled with less activity in parts of the brain that help suppress negative  
emotion (Ruocco et al., [14.189]). As in almost all other psychological disorders, most researchers agree that BPD  
results from an interaction of biopsychosocial factors (Crego & Widiger , [14.53]; McMurran & Crawford,  
[14.142]; Stone, [14.214]).  
Retrieval Practice 14.5 Other Disorders  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Compare obsessions and compulsions.  
2\.   
A disorder characterized by disturbances in conscious awareness, self-identity, and/or memory is known as a(n)  
________.  
a. dissociative disorder  
b. disoriented disorder  
c. displacement disorder  
d. identity disorder  
3\.   
________is characterized by the presence of two or more separate and distinct personality systems in the same  
individual.  
a. Multiple-personality dysfunction (MPD)  
b. Disassociation disorder (DD)  
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c. Fictional-actor delusion (F AD)  
d. Dissociative identity disorder (DID)  
4\.   
A serial killer would likely be diagnosed as a(n) ________personality in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual  
(DSM).  
a. dissociative disorder  
b. antisocial personality disorder  
c. multiple personality disorder  
d. borderline psychosis  
5\.   
Instability in emotions, relationships, and self-image, along with impulsive and self-destructive behaviors, are  
characteristic of the ________personality disorder .  
a. manic depressive  
b. bipolar  
c. borderline  
d. antisocial  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 7 (Memory), we discussed the heated and ongoing controversy over false versus repressed memories. In  
this chapter , you discovered a similar controversy over dissociative identity disorder (DID). Explain the role of  
false memories in both controversies.  
.  
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Print this page  
14.6 Gender and Cultural Effects  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize gender and cultural differences in psychological disorders.  
•Discussthe possible gender differences in depression.  
•Explainwhy it is difficult to directly compare psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia, across cultures.  
•Describehow understanding culture-general symptoms and culture-bound disorders helps us overcome ethnocentrism in psychological  
disorders.  
•Discusshow resilience promotes mental health.  
Among the Chippewa, Cree, and Montagnais-Naskapi Indians in Canada, there is a disorder called wedigoor wiitiko—psychosis, characterized by  
delusions and cannibalistic impulses. Believing they have been possessed by the spirit of a windigo, a cannibal giant with a heart and entrails of  
ice, victims become severely depressed (Faddiman, [14.72]). As the malady begins, the individual typically experiences loss of appetite, diarrhea,  
vomiting, and insomnia, and he or she may see people turning into beavers and other edible animals. In later stages, the victim becomes obsessed  
with cannibalistic thoughts and may even attack and kill loved ones in order to devour their flesh (Berreman, [14.27]; Thomason, [14.227]).  
If you were a therapist, how would you treat this disorder? Does it fit neatly into any category of psychological disorders that we've just  
discussed? W e began this chapter by discussing the complexities and problems with defining, identifying, and classifying abnormal behavior.  
Before we close, we need to add two additional confounding factors: gender and culture. In this section, we explore a few of the many ways in  
which men and women differ in their experience of abnormal behavior . W e also look at cultural variations in abnormal behavior.  
Gender Differences  
When you picture someone suffering from depression, anxiety , alcoholism, or antisocial personality disorder, what is the gender of each person?  
Most people tend to visualize a woman for the first two and a man for the last two. There is some truth to these stereotypes.  
Research has found many gender differences in the prevalence rates of various psychological disorders. Let's start with the well-established fact  
that around the world, the rate of severe depression for women is about double that for men, and these differences tend to peak during  
adolescence. The gender gap narrows in early adulthood and then remains relatively stable in middle and late adulthood (Kuehner, [14.120]; Salk  
et al., [14.190]; W orld Health Organization, [14.243]).  
Why is there such a striking gender difference? Certain risk factors for depression (such as genetic predisposition, marital problems, pain, and  
illness) are common to both men and women. However , poverty is a well-known contributor to many psychological disorders, and women are far  
more likely than men to fall into the lowest socioeconomic groups. Women also experience more wage disparity and discrimination in the work  
force, sexual harassment and trauma, partner abuse, and chronic stress in their daily lives, which are all well-known contributing factors in  
depression and other disorders (Kelly et al., [14.110]; Oram et al., [14.164]; Salk et al., [14.190]). For more on income inequality , see the  
following Research Challenge.  
Research Challenge Does Unequal Pay for Equal W ork Increase Female Anxiety and Depression?  
Both anxiety and depression are more common among women than men, and a recent study provides an intriguing explanation (Platt et al.,  
[14.172]). Given their initial hypothesis that the women's higher rate for both disorders may be due to discrimination in the workplace, researchers  
examined data from a national sample of over 20,000 adults (ages 30 to 65), who were interviewed in 2001–2002. Participants were asked  
questions about their education, work experience, and income, as well as questions to identify symptoms of depression and anxiety.  
As predicted, women who made less than men (but had the same level of education and years in the workforce) were more likely to have both  
generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder. More specifically , women whose income was equivalent to or greater than men's at  
the same level were somewhat more likely to show symptoms of anxiety , whereas those who made less money were more than four times as  
likely to show such symptoms. Similarly , women with equivalent levels of education and job experience but lower income had a rate of major  
depression nearly 2.5 times higher than men's. However, there was no gender difference in rates of depression among women whose income was  
the same as or better than men's.  
Can you understand how these findings suggest that gender differences in rates of anxiety and depression may be at least in part a function of the  
consistently lower pay women receive in the workplace, and not merely a function of gender differences in biological predisposition to such  
disorders? W omen may conclude that they are paid relatively less for equivalent work because of inferior merit and work quality, which, in turn,  
may cause feelings of depression and anxiety. Policies that mandate equal pay for equal work could therefore potentially help reduce the  
prevalence of these disorders in women.  
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T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Platt et al., [14.172]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to  
groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elationalresearch, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and  
public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better  
critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Research also suggests that some gender differences in depression may relate to the way women and men most often internalize or externalize  
their emotions. For instance, women tend to “vent” (express their emotions to others) more than men. They also generally ruminate more  
frequently than men, which means they are more likely to obsess and focus repetitively on their depressive thoughts and emotions, whereas men  
typically suppress their depressive thoughts and emotions (Malooly et al., [14.135]; Polanco-Romano et al., [14.173]; Rice et al., [14.182]).  
Can you see how these gender differences might lead to differential diagnoses for depression? The most common symptoms of stereotypical  
depression, such as crying, low energy , dejected facial expressions, and withdrawal from social activities, are more socially acceptable for women  
than for men. In contrast, men in W estern societies are typically socialized to believe that they should show their distress by acting out (being  
aggressive), acting impulsively (driving recklessly and committing petty crimes), and/or engaging in substance abuse. Given these differences in  
socialization and behaviors, combined with the fact that gender differences in depression are more pronounced in cultures with traditional gender  
roles, male depression may “simply” be expressed in less stereotypical ways, and therefore be underdiagnosed (Fields & Cochran, [14.73]; Pérez  
& Gaviña, [14.170]; Seedat et al., [14.198]). See the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Gender Strategies for Managing Depression  
In order to prevent or reduce depression, women may benefit from learning better stress reduction and thought control (Chapter 3). On the other  
hand, if it's true that men more often express their depression through impulsive, acting-out behaviors, then rewarding deliberate, planned  
behaviors over unintentional, spur-of-the moment ones may be helpful for treating some forms of male depression (Eaton et al., [14.68]). It's also  
important to stress that just because women are twice as likely to suffer from depression than men, it doesn't mean that the distress and  
impairment of depressed men should be overlooked or minimized.  
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Understanding the importance of genetic predispositions, external environmental factors (like poverty), and cognitive factors (like internalizing  
versus externalizing emotions and problems) may help mental health professionals better understand individual and gender-related differences in  
depression.  
Culture and Psychological Disorders  
Individuals from different cultures experience psychological disorders in a variety of ways. For example, the reported incidence of schizophrenia  
varies in different cultures around the world. It is unclear whether these differences result from actual differences in prevalence of the disorder or  
from differences in definition, diagnosis, or reporting (Hsu, [14.97]; Luhrmann et al., [14.132]; McLean et al., [14.141]). The symptoms and  
beliefs about the causes of schizophrenia also vary across cultures (Barnow & Balkir, [14.16]; Campbell et al., [14.45]; López & Guarnaccia,  
[14.130]), as do the particular stressors that may trigger its onset (Figure14.21).  
a.Some stressors are culturally specific, such  
as feeling possessed by evil forces or being the  
victim of witchcraft.  
b.Other stressors are shared by many cultures,  
such as the unexpected death of a loved one or  
loss of a job (Al-Issa, [14.2]; Cechnicki et al.,  
[14.49]; Ramsay et al., [14.178]).  
Figure 14.21 What is stressful?  
Finally , despite the advanced treatment facilities and methods in industrialized nations, the prognosis for people with schizophrenia is sometimes  
better in nonindustrialized societies. The reason may be that the core symptoms of schizophrenia (poor rapport with others, incoherent speech, and  
so on) make it more difficult to survive in highly industrialized countries. Furthermore, in most industrialized nations, families and other support  
groups are less likely to feel responsible for relatives and friends who have schizophrenia (Akyeampong et al., [14.1]; Burns et al., [14.43]; Eaton  
et al., [14.68]). On the other hand, some countries, such as Indonesia, still shackle and confine their mentally ill in filthy cells without basic  
human rights (Quiano, [14.175]).  
A voiding Ethnocentrism  
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Most research on psychological disorders originates and is conducted primarily in Western cultures. Do you see how such a restricted sampling  
can limit our understanding of these disorders? And how this limited view could lead to an ethnocentric view—a view that one's own culture is  
“correct?”  
Fortunately , cross-cultural researchers have devised ways to overcome these difficulties. Robert Nishimoto ([14.162]) has found several culturegeneral symptomsthat are useful in diagnosing disorders across cultures (T able14.3). Nishimoto also found several culture-bound symptoms,  
which are unique to different groups and generally appear only in one population. When talking about their psychological problems, for instance,  
V ietnamese and Chinese respondents more often report “fullness in head,” Mexican respondents note “problems with [their] memory,” and  
Anglo-American respondents report “shortness of breath” and “headaches.” Apparently, people learn to express their problems in ways that are  
acceptable to others in the same culture (Brislin, [14.39]; Hsu, [14.97]; Shannon et al., [14.202]).  
T able14.3Culture-General Symptoms of Mental Health Difficulties  
Nervous Trouble sleeping Low spirits  
W eak all over Personal worries Restless  
Feel apart, alone Can't get along Hot all over  
W orry all the time Can't do anything worthwhileNothing turns out right  
Source:Brislin, [14.39].  
This division between culture-general and culture-bound symptoms also helps us better understand depression. Certain symptoms of depression  
(such as intense sadness, poor concentration, and low energy) seem to exist across all cultures (W alsh & Cross, [14.237]; W orld Health  
Organization, [14.241]). But there is evidence of some culture-bound symptoms. Feelings of guilt, for instance, are found more often in North  
America and Europe than in other parts of the world. And in China, somatization(the conversion of depression into bodily complaints) occurs  
more frequently than it does in other parts of the world (Grover & Ghosh, [14.87]; Lim et al., [14.126]).  
Just as there are culture-bound symptoms, researchers also have found culture-bound disorders (Figure14.22). The earlier example of windigo  
psychosis, a disorder limited to a few groups of Canadian Indians, illustrates just such a case. Interestingly, the distinctions between many culturebound and cultural-general symptoms and disorders may be disappearing as a result of globalization (Kato & Kanba, [14.109]; V entriglio et al.,  
[14.234]).  
Figure 14.22 Culture-bound disordersSome disorders are fading as remote areas become more W esternized, whereas other disorders (such as  
anorexia nervosa) are spreading as other countries adopt W estern values.  
As you can see, culture has a strong effect on psychological disorders (Campbell et al., [14.45]; López & Guarnaccia, [14.130]; Stefanovics et al.,  
[14.213]). Studying the similarities and differences across cultures can lead to better diagnosis and understanding. It also helps all of us avoid, or  
at least minimize, our ethnocentrism.  
Before closing this chapter, we need to offer a cautionary note. Students who first learn about these disorders often become overly concerned  
when they recognize some of the symptoms in themselves and others (Griffiths, 2016). This is so common that it actually has a name—  
psychology student syndrome (PSS). Although it's tempting to use the information you've gained to diagnose yourself or others, only  
professionals are adequately trained to do so. If you're concerned about your own mental health or that of others, be sure to contact one of these  
professionals. Chapter 15 provides an overview of the various forms of therapy and tips for finding a good therapist. The following Psychology  
and Y our Personal Success feature further explains how resilience offers an interesting, positive approach to mental health.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessCan Resilience Pr omote Mental Health in Childr en and  
Adults?  
The bamboo that bends is stronger than the oak that resists.  
—Japanese proverb  
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Children fortunate enough to grow up with days filled with play and discovery, nights that provide rest and security , and dedicated, loving parents  
usually turn out fine. But what about those who are raised in violent, impoverished, or neglectful situations? Researchers have found that a  
troubled childhood is associated with higher risks of serious psychological disorders, along with physical, emotional, and behavioral problems.  
Y et some children living in harsh circumstances survive and prosper—as shown perhaps in this photo of a family in a refugee camp. What makes  
the difference?  
The answer apparently is resilience—the ability to recover and adapt effectively in the face of adversity . Like bamboo that bends in strong winds,  
a resilient person flexes in response to hard times. Resilience has been studied throughout the world in a variety of situations, including ill health,  
homelessness, natural disasters, war, and family violence (e.g., Gibbons & Hickling, [14.78]; Gil-Rivas & Kilmer, [14.81]; Reynolds, [14.181]).  
And it is of particular interest to psychologists because it can teach us better ways to reduce risk, promote competence, and shift the course of  
development in more positive directions. Moreover, researchers using a meta-analysis, which compares data from multiple studies, found a solid  
link between resilience and mental health (Mortazavi & Y arolahi, [14.153]).  
What characterizes a resilient child? Two pioneering researchers—Ann Masten and Douglas Coatsworth ([14.138])—identified several traits and  
environmental circumstances that might account for the resilient child's success: (1) good intellectual functioning; (2) relationships with caring  
adults; and, as they grow older, (3) the ability to regulate their attention, emotions, and behavior . These traits obviously overlap. Good intellectual  
functioning, for example, may help resilient children solve problems or protect themselves from adverse conditions, as well as attract the interest  
of teachers who serve as nurturing adults. Their greater intellectual skills also may help them learn from their experiences and from the caring  
adults, so in later life they have better self-regulation skills.  
Resilience can develop in adulthood as well as in childhood. Surprisingly, in adults, adversity can actually promote healthy development  
(Konnikova, [14.1 16]). A recent study examined how some people benefit even after experiencing an extraordinarily stressful event, such as a  
mass school shooting (Mancini et al., [14.136]). These researchers compared data in psychological adjustment, including anxiety and depression,  
in female students before the 2007 shooting at V irginia T ech (as part of an already ongoing study) and then again after the event. As you would  
expect, some students showed continued distress. But other students showed psychological improvement and resilience following these attacks, a  
phenomenon known as posttraumatic growth, which suggests that trauma can, at least at times, lead to positive outcomes (T edeschi & Blevins,  
[14.225]; Zhou & W u, [14.249]).  
What can be done to promote adult resilience? One recent study found that practicing self-and other compassion, along with meditation(see  
Chapters 3 and 5), are valuable components of resilience (Newman, [14.56]). According to psychologist George Bonanno ([14.31]), another  
component is perception. Do you perceive adversity as filled with meaning and an opportunity to grow and change? Or do you see it as  
devastating and uncontrollable? The good news is that we can develop a more resilient perception of adversity by cultivating the trait of selfefficacyand an internal locus of contr ol(Chapter 13), as well as a more optimistic, attributional style(Chapter 16). In keeping with our text's  
focus on a growth mindset, recent research has found that individuals who have an anxiety growth mindset—that is, who believe that anxiety, like  
intelligence, is not a fixed trait—showed more resilience and positive coping than those without this mindset (Schroder et al., [14.197]).  
Finally , bear in mind that a focus on resilience, when taken to extremes, may lead to a dangerous form of “blaming the victim.” People who are  
homeless or mentally ill, for example, have been blamed for lacking resilience. While resilience is a useful concept, and while it is worth  
cultivating, we must consider all the factors leading to adversity and avoid placing all the responsibility for an individual's survival on that  
individual's resilience (Sehgal, [14.199]). Thinking back to the resilient child, Masten and Coatsworth remind us, “if we allow the prevalence of  
known risk factors for development to rise while resources for children fall, we can expect the competence of individual children and the human  
capital of the nation to suffer” (Masten & Coatsworth, [14.138], p. 216).  
Retrieval Practice 14.6 Gender and Cultural Effects  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
How does depression differ in men and women?  
2\.   
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Which of the following are examples of culture-general symptoms of mental health difficulties that are useful in diagnosing disorders across  
cultures?  
a. Trouble sleeping  
b. W orry all the time  
c. Can't get along  
d. All of these options  
3\.   
Symptoms of mental illness that generally only appear in one population group are known as ________.  
a. culture-bound symptoms  
b. group specific disorders  
c. group-think syndrome  
d. culture-specific maladies  
4\.   
What disorder has the following symptoms: wild, out-of-control, aggressive behaviors and attempts to injure or kill others?  
a. Brain fag  
b. Running amok  
c. Possession by the Zar  
d. Koro  
5\.   
Somatization (the conversion of depression into bodily complaints) occurs more frequently in ________.  
a. North and Central America  
b. China  
c. India  
d. Europe  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology  
and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction and Research Methods), we discussed ethnocentrism and how it might affect general psychological research. In this  
chapter , we explored how it might play a role in research on psychological disorders. Identify the potential problems caused by ethnocentrism in  
both contexts.


	15. Chapter 15

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15.1 T alk Therapies  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the three main forms of talk therapies.  
•Definepsychotherapy .  
•Describepsychoanalysis and its core techniques and criticisms, along with modern psychodynamic therapies.  
•Discusshumanistic therapies and their key techniques and evaluation.  
•Summarizecognitive therapies and their core principles and evaluation.  
Throughout this text, we have emphasized the scienceof psychology , and this chapter is no exception. Now , we'll explore how therapists  
apply this science during psychotherapyto help us all improve our overall psychological functioning and adjustment to life and to assist  
people suffering from psychological disorders. Unfortunately , research finds that over 56% of American adults with a diagnosed  
psychological disorder are not receiving treatment (The State of Mental Health in America, [15.177]). This may be due in large part to the  
common stereotype and stigma that therapy is only for deeply disturbed individuals. Therefore, keep in mind that therapy provides an  
opportunity for everyoneto have his or her specific problems addressed, as well as to learn better thinking, feeling, and behavioral skills  
useful in everyday life.  
W e begin our discussion of professional psychotherapy with traditional psychoanalysis and its modern counterpart, psychodynamic  
therapies. Then we explore humanistic and cognitive therapies. Although these therapies differ significantly , they're often grouped  
together as “talk therapies” because they emphasize communication between the therapist and client, as opposed to the behavioral and  
biomedical therapies we discuss later.  
Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Therapies  
In psychoanalysis, a person's psyche(or mind) is analyzed. T raditional psychoanalysis is based on Sigmund Freud's central belief that  
abnormal behavior is caused by unconscious, unresolved conflicts (see photo). The therapist's major goal is to provide insight and to bring  
these conflicts into conscious awareness. During psychoanalysis, the individual comes to understand the reasons for his or her dysfunction  
and realizes that the childhood conditions under which the conflicts developed no longer exist. Once this realization or insight occurs, the  
conflicts can be resolved, and the client can develop more adaptive behavior patterns (Barber & Solomonov, [15.13]; Bonomi, [15.24]).  
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)  
Freud believed that during psychoanalysis, the therapist's (or psychoanalyst's) major goal was to bring unconscious conflicts into  
consciousness.  
Major Therapy T echniques  
As you recall from Chapter 13, in Freudian theory, unconscious conflicts occur among the three parts of the psyche—the id, the ego, and  
the superego. Unfortunately , according to Freud, the ego has strong defense mechanismsthat block unconscious thoughts from coming to  
light. Thus, to gain insight into the unconscious, the ego must be “tricked” into relaxing its guard. T o meet that goal, psychoanalysts  
employ five major methods: fr ee association, dream analysis, analyzing resistance, analyzing transference, and interpr etation(Figure  
15.2).  
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Figure 15.2 The five key techniques for  
psychoanalysis  
Free Association  
According to Freud, when you let your mind wander and remove conscious censorship over thoughts—a process called free association—  
interesting and even bizarre connections seem to spring into awareness. Freud believed that the first thing to come to a patient's mind is  
often an important clue to what the person's unconscious wants to conceal. Having the client recline on a couch, with only the ceiling to  
look at, is believed to encourage free association (Figure15.3).  
Figure 15.3 Freud's free associationAs satirized in this  
popular cartoon, psychoanalysis is often stereotypically  
portrayed as a client lying on a couch engaging in free  
association. Freud believed that this arrangement—with the  
client relaxed and the therapist out of his or her view—helps  
the client let down his or her defenses, making the unconscious  
more accessible.  
Dream Analysis  
Recall from Chapter 5 that, according to Freud, our psychological defenses are lowered during sleep. Therefore, our forbidden desires and  
unconscious conflicts are supposedly more freely expressed during dreams. Even while dreaming, however, we recognize these feelings  
and conflicts as unacceptable and must disguise them as images that have deeper symbolic meaning. Thus, using Freudian dream analysis,  
a dream of riding a horse or driving a car might be analyzed as just the surface description, or manifest content. In contrast, the hidden,  
underlying meaning, or latent content, might be analyzed as a desire for , or concern about, sexual intercourse.  
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Analysis of Resistance  
During free association or dream analysis, Freud found that clients often show an inability or unwillingness to confront unpleasant or  
fearful unconscious conflicts. For example, a client may suddenly “forget” what he or she was saying or completely change the subject. It  
is the therapist's job to identify these possible cases of resistanceand then help the client face his or her unconscious conflicts and learn to  
deal with them more realistically .  
Analysis of Transference  
Freud believed that during psychoanalysis, clients disclose intimate feelings and memories, and the relationship between the therapist and  
client may become complex and emotionally charged. As a result, clients often apply , or transfer, some of their unresolved emotions and  
attitudes from past relationships onto the therapist. For instance, a client might interact with the therapist as if the therapist were a lover or  
parent. The therapist uses this process of transferenceto help the client “relive” painful past relationships in a safe, therapeutic setting so  
that he or she can move on to healthier relationships.  
Interpretation  
The core of all psychoanalytic therapy is interpretation. During free association, dream analysis, resistance, and transference, the analyst  
listens closely and tries to find patterns and hidden conflicts. At the right time, the therapist explains or interprets the underlying meanings  
to the client.  
Psychodynamic Therapies  
A modern derivative of Freudian psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapies, includes both Freud's theories and those of his major  
followers—Carl Jung, Alfred Adler , Karen Horney , and Erik Erikson. In contrast to psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapies are shorter  
and less intensive (once or twice a week versus several times a week and only for a few weeks or months versus years). Also, the client is  
treated face-to-face rather than reclining on a couch, and the therapist takes a more directive approach. Rather than waiting for  
unconscious memories and desires to slowly be uncovered, the psychodynamic therapist is more likely to offer advice or support.  
Contemporary psychodynamic therapists also focus less on unconscious, early-childhood roots of problems and more on conscious  
processes and current problems (Barber & Solomonov , [15.13]; Göttken et al., [15.66]; Short & Thomas, [15.165]). Such refinements have  
helped make treatments shorter, more available, and more effective for an increasing number of people. See Figure15.4 for one of the  
most popular modern forms of psychodynamic therapies.  
Figure 15.4 Interpersonal therapy (IPT)IPT , a  
variation of psychodynamic therapy , focuses on  
current relationships, with the goal of relieving  
immediate symptoms and teaching better ways to  
solve interpersonal problems. Research shows that  
it's effective for a variety of disorders, including  
depression, marital conflict, eating and personality  
disorders, and drug addiction (Dimaggio et al.,  
[15.45]; Driessen et al., [15.52]; Normandin et al.,  
[15.132]).  
Evaluating Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Therapies  
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Research shows that traditional psychoanalysis can be effective for those who have the time and money (Busch, [15.29], [15.30]; Huber &  
Klug, [15.81]; W atkins, [15.187]). Psychodynamic therapies lead to similar benefits, and because they take place over a shorter time,  
they're also less expensive (Goldstone, [15.64]; Sell et al., [15.163]).  
On the other hand, there are three major criticisms of these therapies (Grünbaum, [15.68]; Miltenberger, [15.123]; Ng et al., [15.129]):  
•Question of repr essed memories and unconscious conflict As you've just seen, psychoanalysis is largely rooted in the assumption that  
repressed memories and unconscious conflicts actually exist. But, as we noted in Chapters 7 and 13, this assumption is the subject of  
heated, ongoing debate.  
•Limited applicabilityPsychoanalysis is time-consuming (often lasting several years with four to five sessions a week) and expensive.  
Furthermore, critics suggest that it applies only to a select group of highly motivated, articulate clients with less severe disorders and  
not to such complex disorders as schizophrenia.  
•Lack of scientific credibilityAccording to critics, it is difficult, if not impossible, to scientifically document the major tenets of  
psychoanalysis. How do we prove or disprove the existence of an unconscious mind or the meaning of unconscious conflicts and  
symbolic dream images?  
Humanistic Therapies  
Humanistic therapiesare based on the belief that psychological disorders result from blocked personal growth. Therefore, the therapist's  
major goal is to maximize the individual's growth and potential, inherent capacity for self-actualization, free will, and self-awareness.  
Humanistic therapists assume that when obstacles are removed, the individual is free to become the self-accepting, self-actualized person  
everyone is capable of being (D'Souza & Gurin, [15.53]; Schneider et al., [15.160]; Winston et al., [15.191]).  
Rather than emphasizing the unconscious, humanistic therapies focus on providing an accepting atmosphere and encouraging healthy  
emotional experiences. And humanistic therapists believe clients are responsible for discovering their own maladaptive patterns, whereas  
psychoanalysts and psychodynamic therapists rely on the therapist's analysis to provide insight.  
W e do not need magic to transform our world. W e carry all of the power we need inside ourselves already.  
—J. K. Rowling  
Carl Rogers  
One of the best-known humanistic therapists is Carl Rogers (see photo), who developed an approach that encourages people to actualize  
their potential and to relate to others in genuine ways (Rogers, [15.147], [15.148]). His approach is referred to as client-centered therapy  
(Figure15.5). (Rogers used the term clientbecause he believed the label patientimplied that someone was sick or mentally ill rather than  
responsible and competent.)  
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)  
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Figure 15.5 Nurturing growthRecall how you've  
felt when you've been with someone who  
considers you to be a worthy and good person  
with unlimited potential, a person who believes  
that your “real self” is unique and valuable.  
These are the feelings that are nurtured in clientcentered therapy .  
Major Therapy T echniques  
Rogerian therapists create a therapeutic relationship by focusing on four key elements of communication: empathy, unconditional positive  
r egar d, genuineness, and active listening.  
Empathy  
Using the technique of empathy, a sensitive understanding and sharing of another person's inner experience, therapists pay attention to  
body language and listen for subtle cues to help them understand the emotional experiences of clients. To further help clients explore their  
feelings, the therapists use open-ended statements such as “Y ou found that upsetting” or “Y ou haven't been able to decide what to do about  
this” rather than asking questions or offering explanations.  
Unconditional Positive Regard  
Regardless of the clients' problems or behaviors, humanistic therapists offer them unconditional positive regard, a genuine caring and  
nonjudgmental attitude toward people based on their innate value as individuals. They avoid evaluative statements such as “That's good”  
and “Y ou did the right thing” because such comments imply that the therapist is judging the client. Rogers believed that most of us receive  
conditional acceptance from our parents, teachers, and others, which leads to poor self-concepts and psychological disorders ( Figure  
15.6).  
Figure 15.6 Unconditional versus conditional  
positive regardAccording to Rogers, clients  
need to feel unconditionally accepted by their  
therapists in order to recognize and value their  
own emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. As  
this cartoon sarcastically implies, some  
parents withhold their love and acceptance  
unless their children live up to their  
expectations.  
Genuineness  
Humanists believe that when therapists use genuinenessand honestly share their thoughts and feelings with their clients, the clients will in  
turn develop self-trust and honest self-expression.  
Active Listening  
Using active listening, which includes reflecting, paraphrasing, and clarifying what clients are saying, therapists communicate that they  
are very interested and paying close attention (see the Try This Y ourself).  
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In my early pr ofessional years, I was asking the question: How can I treat, or cure, or change this person? Now I would phrase the  
question in this way: How can I provide a relationship which this person may use for his own personal growth?  
—Carl Rogers (Founder of Client-Centered Therapy)  
Try This Y ourself Using Active Listening Personally and Professionally  
If you want to try active listening in your personal life, keep in mind that to r eflectis to hold a mirror in front of the person, enabling that  
person to see him- or herself. T o paraphraseis to summarize in different words what the other person is saying. T o clarifyis to check that  
both the speaker and listener are on the same wavelength.  
When a professional uses active listening, he or she might notice a client's furrowed brow and downcast eyes while he is discussing his  
military experiences and then might respond, “It sounds like you're angry with your situation and feeling pretty miserable right now.” Can  
you see how this statement reflects the client's anger, paraphrases his complaint, and gives feedback to clarify the communication? This  
type of attentive, active listening is a relatively simple and well-documented technique that you can use to improve your communication  
with virtually anyone—professors, employers, friends, family, and especially your romantic partner .  
Evaluating Humanistic Therapies  
Supporters say humanistic therapies emphasize the positives of human nature, and they point out that there is empirical evidence for the  
efficacy of client-centered therapy . However , critics argue that outcomes such as self-actualization and self-awareness are difficult to test  
scientifically . Furthermore, research on specific humanistic techniques has had mixed results (Cain et al., [15.31]; Erekson & Lambert,  
[15.56]; Xu & T racey , [15.194]).  
Cognitive Therapies  
Cognitive therapiesassume that faulty , distorted thoughts (cognitions) are the primary source of problems and that the therapist's key goal  
is to help clients identify and correct this faulty thinking (Calkins et al., [15.32]; Clark, [15.36]; Craske, [15.38]).  
Like psychoanalysts and humanists, cognitive therapists believe that exploring unexamined beliefs can produce insight into the reasons for  
disturbed thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. However, instead of believing that a change occurs because of insight, cognitive therapists  
suggest that addressing negative self-talk, the unrealistic things a person tells himself or herself, is most important. For example, research  
with women suffering from eating disorders found that changing a client's irrational thoughts and self-talk, such as “If I eat that cake, I  
will become fat instantly” or “I'll never have a dating relationship if I don't lose 20 pounds,” resulted in their having fewer negative  
thoughts about their bodies (Bhatnagar et al., [15.22]).  
Through a process called cognitive restructuring, clients learn to identify , dispute, and replace their irrational or maladaptive thoughts with  
more realistic and positive beliefs. Do you see how if we first identify our irrational thoughts, then we can logically challenge them, which  
in turn enables us to become more effective (Figure15.7)?  
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Figure 15.7 Using cognitive restructuring to improve sales  
Ellis's Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT )  
One of the best-known cognitive therapists, Albert Ellis, suggested that irrational beliefs are the primary culprit in problem emotions and  
behaviors. He proposed that most people mistakenly believe they are unhappy or upset because of external events, such as receiving a bad  
grade on an exam. In reality , according to Ellis, these negative emotions result from faulty interpretations and irrational beliefs (such as  
interpreting the bad grade as a sign of your incompetence and an indication that you'll never qualify for graduate school or a good job).  
T o deal with these irrational beliefs, Ellis developed rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)(Ellis & Ellis, [15.54], [15.55];  
Stephenson et al., [15.172]; Turner, [15.179]). (See Step-by-Step Diagram15.1 and the following Try This Y ourself.)  
The best years of your life are the ones in which [you] decide your problems are your own. Y ou do not blame them on your mother , the  
ecology , or the pr esident. Y ou realize that you control your own destiny.  
—Albert Ellis  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 15.1 Ellis's Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT )  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
If you receive a poor performance evaluation at work, you might directly attribute your bad mood to the negative feedback. Psychologist  
Albert Ellis would argue that your self-talk (“I always mess up”) between the event and the feeling is what actually upsets you.  
Furthermore, ruminating on all the other times you've “messed up” in your life maintains your negative emotional state and may even lead  
to anxiety disorders, depression, or other psychological disorders.  
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Albert Ellis (1913–2007)  
T o treat these problems, Ellis developed an A–B–C–D approach: Astands for activating event, Bthe person's belief system, Cthe  
emotional consequences, and Dthe act of disputingerroneous beliefs. During therapy , Ellis helped his clients identify the A, B, C's  
underlying their irrational beliefs by actively arguing with, cajoling, and teasing them—sometimes in very blunt, confrontational  
language. Once clients recognized their self-defeating thoughts, he worked with them on how to disputethose beliefs and create and test  
out new , rational ones. These new beliefs then changed the maladaptive emotions—thus breaking the vicious cycle. (Note the arrow under  
D that goes backwards to B.)  
Try This Y ourself Overcoming Irrational Misconceptions  
Albert Ellis believed that people often require the help of a therapist to see through their defenses and to challenge their self-defeating  
thoughts. For mild, everyday problems, our students have found that they can improve their own irrational beliefs and responses with the  
following suggestions:  
1.Identify and confront your belief system Identify your irrational beliefs by asking yourself why you feel the particular emotions you  
do. Then, by confronting your thoughts and feelings, you can discover the irrational assumptions creating the problem consequences.  
2.Evaluate consequences Rather than perpetuating negative emotions by assuming they must be experienced, focus on whether your  
reactions make you more effective and enable you to solve your problems. It's gratifying when people you cherish love you in return.  
But if they don't, continuing to pursue them, or insisting that they must love you, will only be self-defeating.  
3.Practice effective ways of thinking and behaving Imagine and rehearse thoughts and behaviors that are more effective and outcomes  
that are more successful.  
Why do I talk about the benefits of failure? … I was set free because my greatest fear had been realized, … and so rock bottom became a  
solid foundation on which I rebuilt my life.  
—J. K. Rowling  
Beck's Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT )  
Another well-known cognitive therapist, Aaron Beck, also believes psychological problems result from illogical thinking and destructive  
self-talk (Beck, [15.16], [15.17]; Calkins et al., [15.32]; Cristea et al., [15.39]). But Beck seeks to directly confront and change the  
behaviors associated with destructive cognitions. Beck's cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT)is designed to reduce bothself-destructive  
thoughts andself-destructive behaviors.  
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In CBT , clients are first taught to recognize and keep track of their destructive thoughts ( Figure15.8). Next, CBT therapists help clients  
test these automatic thoughts against reality , thereby discovering that their faulty and illogical thoughts are feeding their depression (see  
the following T ry This Y ourself).  
Figure 15.8 The cognitive triad of  
depressionAccording to Beck, some individuals  
typically think about themselves and their futures, along  
with their personal life experiences, in destructive,  
illogical ways. This so-called “cognitive triad” of  
negative thinking leads people to see themselves as  
inadequate, to view the future as bleak, and to  
exaggerate everyday negative experiences. Do you  
recognize how this triad of negativity feeds into and  
maintains depression?  
Try This Y ourself A Cognitive Approach to Lifting Depression  
One of the most successful applications of Beck's CBT is in the treatment of depression (Beck et al., [15.19], [15.18]; Dobson, [15.47];  
Hundt et al., [15.83]). Beck identified several thinking patterns believed to be common among depression-prone people, which are listed  
below . Recognizing these patterns in our own thought processes may help prevent or improve the occasional bad moods we all experience.  
In CBT treatment, clients are first taught the three Cs—to Catch(identify), Challenge, and Changetheir irrational or maladaptive thought  
patterns. Here, we provide an example of how to label the three C's for the first thinking pattern, selective perception. Then try to do the  
same for the other four maladaptive patterns.  
•Selective perception Focusing selectively on negative events while ignoring positive events. (Catch the thought= “Why am I the only  
person alone at this party?” Challenge it= “I notice four other single people at this party .” Change it= “Being single has several  
advantages. I'll bet some of the couples are actually envying my freedom.”)  
•Overgeneralization Drawing sweeping, global, negative conclusions based on one incident and then assuming that conclusion applies  
to unrelated areas of life. “My girlfriend yelled at me for not picking her up on time. I'm so forgetful. I'll never succeed in a  
professional career .”  
•Magnification and minimization Exaggerating the importance of small, undesirable events and grossly underestimating larger,  
positive ones. Despite having earned high grades in all her classes, an A student concludes: “This B on my last organic chemistry quiz  
means that I can't go on to med school, so I should just drop out of college right now.”  
•Personalization T aking responsibility and blame for events that are actually unrelated to the individual. “My adult child is unmarried  
and doesn't want to have children. I must have been a bad parent.”  
•All-or-nothing thinking Seeing things in terms of black-or-white categories—where everything is either totally good or bad, right or  
wrong, a success or a failure. (“If I don't get straight A's, I'll never get a good job.”)  
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Aaron Beck (1921–)  
Once clients have recognized their destructive cognitions and tested them against reality, they are asked to confront and change their  
behaviors. Clients who suffer from depression, for instance, often lose motivation, even for experiences they used to find enjoyable.  
T aking an active rather than a passive role and reconnecting with enjoyable experiences can help lift their depression.  
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT )  
Building on CBT and the mindfulness meditation discussed in Chapter 3, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT)helps clients to  
focus on their streams of thoughts, including their fears, anxieties, and worries. However, MBCT emphasizes that clients need to become  
mindful of their thinking processes at the very moment they're occurring (Forkmann et al., [15.59]; Helmes & Ward, [15.75]). Clients are  
taught how to pay attention to their ongoing thoughts, feelings, and events in a receptive and nonjudmental way—as mere passing events  
of the mind. MBCT has been successfully applied in treatments for PTSD (Figure15.9), as well as depression, personality disorders, and  
substance abuse (Dimidjian et al., [15.46]; Fortuna & V allejo, [15.60]; Ottavi et al., [15.138]).  
Figure 15.9 MBCTand the  
militaryT o test the effectiveness of  
MBCT , 62 veterans suffering from  
PTSD were divided into two groups  
(Possemato et al., [15.142]). One  
group received the standard primary  
care, whereas the other received  
training in MBCT (see the photo).  
While both groups improved, those in  
the mindfulness group had  
significantly larger reductions in  
symptoms of PTSD and depression,  
and they maintained their gains in the  
8-week follow up. Can you see how  
by accepting their fears and worries  
rather than trying to eliminate them,  
the veterans were less upset and  
affected by them?  
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Evaluating Cognitive Therapies  
Cognitive therapies are highly effective treatments for depression, as well as anxiety disorders, bulimia nervosa, anger management,  
addiction, and even some symptoms of schizophrenia and insomnia (Hundt et al., [15.83]; Palermo et al., [15.141]; Sankar et al.,  
[15.158]).  
There are, however, three major criticisms of cognitive therapies. First, critics suggest that a client's dysfunctional thinking may result  
from, not cause, abnormal functioning. For instance, the delusions and disturbed thinking characteristic of schizophrenia are generally  
believed to result from problems with brain functioning and biochemistry—not the thoughts themselves.  
Second, cognitive therapies have been criticized for ignoring or denying the client's unconscious dynamics and minimizing the importance  
of the client's past.  
Third, some critics suggest that cognitive therapies are successful because they employ behavior techniques, not because they change the  
underlying cognitive structure (Bandura, [15.11], [15.12]; Granillo et al., [15.67]; W alker & Lampropoulos, [15.185]). Imagine that you  
sought treatment for depression and learned to curb your all-or-nothing thinking, along with identifying activities and behaviors that  
lessened your depression. Y ou can see why it's difficult to identify whether changing your cognitions or changing your behavior was the  
most essential therapeutic factor. But to clients who have benefited, it doesn't matter . CBT combines both, and it has a proven track record  
for lifting depression!  
Retrieval Practice 15.1 T alk Therapies  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Why are psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapies, humanistic therapies, and cognitive therapies often grouped together?  
2\.   
The system of psychotherapy developed by Freud that seeks to bring unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness is known as  
________.  
a. transference  
b. cognitive restructuring  
c. psychoanalysis  
d. the “hot seat” technique  
3\.   
A ________therapist emphasizes the importance of empathy , unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and active listening.  
a. psychodynamic  
b. phenomenological behavior  
c. cognitive-behavior  
d. client-centered  
4\.   
According to rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), ________often lead to depression and/or anxiety .  
a. unmet expectations  
b. stimulus events  
c. conditioning experiences  
d. irrational beliefs  
5\.   
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Aaron Beck practices ________therapy , which attempts to change not only destructive thoughts but the associated behaviors as well.  
a. psycho-behavior  
b. cognitive-behavior  
c. thinking-acting  
d. belief-behavior  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 12 (Motivation and Emotion), you discovered that emotion often depends on our cognitive appraisal or interpretation of events  
(Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory). In this chapter , you learned about rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), a form of  
cognitive therapy that links irrational thoughts to problem emotions and behaviors. How are REBT and the two-factor theory alike?  
.  
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15.2 Behavior Therapies  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the treatment techniques and criticisms of behavior therapies.  
•Describehow classical conditioning is used in therapy .  
•Explorehow operant conditioning is used in therapy .  
•Explainhow observational learning is used in therapy .  
•Discussthe major criticisms of behavior therapies.  
The previously discussed talk therapies are often called “insight therapies” because they focus on self-awareness,  
but sometimes having insight into a problem does not automatically solve it. As humorously depicted in the  
cartoon, the focus in behavior therapiesis on the problem behavior itself rather than on any underlying causes  
(Spiegler , [15.171]; Stoll & Brooks, [15.174]). Although the person's feelings and interpretations are not  
disregarded, they're also not emphasized.  
Given that behavior therapists believe that psychological disorders are primarily caused by inappropriate  
conditioning and learning, their major goals are to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behaviors and to increase  
adaptive ones. T o do so, they generally rely on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant  
conditioning, and observational learning(Chapter 6).  
Classical Conditioning T echniques  
Behavior therapists use the principles of classical conditioning to decrease maladaptive behaviors by creating new  
associations to replace the faulty ones. W e will explore two techniques based on these principles: systematic  
desensitizationand aversion therapy.  
Systematic Desensitization  
Recall from Chapter 6 that classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with an  
unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR). Sometimes a classically conditioned fear  
response becomes so extreme that we call it a “phobia.” T o treat phobias, behavior therapists often use systematic  
desensitization, which begins with relaxation training, followed by imagining or directly experiencing various  
versions of a feared object or situation while remaining deeply relaxed (Schare et al., [15.159]; Tyner et al.,  
[15.180]; W olpe & Plaud, [15.192]). See Figure15.10 for a description of systematic desensitization useful for  
overcoming a fear of riding in an elevator .  
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Figure 15.10 Systematic desensitizationIn systematic  
desensitization, the therapist and client together  
construct a fear hierar chy, a ranked listing of 10 or so  
related anxiety-arousing images—from the least  
fearful to the most. Then, while in a state of  
relaxation, the client mentally visualizes, or physically  
experiences, anxiety-producing items at the lowest  
level of the hierarchy . After becoming comfortable  
with the mild stimulus, the client then works his or her  
way up to the most anxiety-producing items at the top.  
In sum, each progressive step on the fear hierarchy is  
repeatedly paired with relaxation, until the fear  
response or phobia is extinguished.  
How does relaxation training desensitize someone? Recall from Chapter 2 that the parasympathetic nerves control  
autonomic functions when we are relaxed. Because the opposing sympathetic nerves are dominant when we are  
anxious, it is physiologically impossible to be both relaxed and anxious at the same time. The key to success is  
teaching the client how to replace his or her fear response with relaxation when exposedto the fearful stimulus,  
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which explains why these and related approaches are often referred to as exposur e therapies(Hundt et al., [15.82];  
Jordan et al., [15.88]).  
For instance, if you or a friend suffers from a spider phobia, you may be amazed to know that after just two or  
three hours of therapy , starting with simply looking at photos of spiders (see the photo), and then moving next to a  
tarantula in a glass aquarium, clients are able to eventually pet and hold the spider with their bare hands (Hauner et  
al., [15.74])! Modern virtual reality technology also uses systematic desensitization to expose clients to feared  
situations right in a therapist's office (Figure15.11).  
Figure 15.11 V irtual reality therapyV irtual  
reality therapy replaces mental images and  
actual physical experiences of fearful  
situations with headsets and data gloves. A  
client with a fear of heights, for example,  
can have experiences ranging from climbing  
a stepladder all the way to standing on the  
edge of a tall building.  
A version Therapy  
As we've just seen, systematic desensitization substitutes a pleasant (relaxed) response to an unpleasant, fearful  
stimulus (like a spider) in order to reduce the fear . In contrast, aversion therapyuses classical conditioning  
techniques to substitute an unpleasant (aversive) response to a pleasant, desired stimulus (like alcohol) in order to  
reduce excessive drinking. Problem drinkers build up a number of pleasurable associations with alcohol. These  
pleasurable associations cannot always be prevented. Therefore, aversion therapy provides unpleasant associations  
to compete with the pleasurable ones (Figure15.12).  
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Figure 15.12 A version therapyThe goal of aversion therapy is to create an undesirable, or aversive,  
response to a stimulus a person would like to avoid, such as alcohol. Here, a man savors his drink  
just before the nauseating effects of the drug Antabuse begin. After repeated pairings of alcohol with  
nausea, the person learns a new , undesirable association—alcohol leads to vomiting!  
Operant Conditioning T echniques  
As we discovered in Chapter 6, consequences are the heart of operant conditioning. Using a form of therapy called  
behavior modification, therapists provide reinforcement as a consequence for appropriate behaviors, and they  
withhold reinforcement for inappropriate behaviors. To develop complex behaviors, they often use shaping, which  
provides immediate rewards for successive approximations of the target behavior . Therapists have found this  
technique particularly successful in developing language skills in children with autism. First, the child is rewarded  
for connecting pictures or other devices with words; later, rewards are given only for using the pictures to  
communicate with others. This type of shaping can even be helpful if you suffer from the common problem of  
excessive shyness (see the following Try This Y ourself).  
Try This Y ourself Overcoming Shyness  
Shaping can help people acquire social skills and greater assertiveness. If you are painfully shy, for instance, a  
clinician might first ask you to role-play simply saying hello to someone you find attractive. Then you might  
practice behaviors that gradually lead you to suggest a get-together or date. During such role-playing, or behavior  
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rehearsal, the clinician gives you feedback and reinforcement for each successive step you take toward the end  
goal.  
For clients in an inpatient treatment facility, adaptive behaviors can be taught or increased with techniques that  
provide immediate reinforcement in the form of tokens, which are objects or symbols that can be later exchanged  
for primary rewards, such as food, TV time, a private room, or outings. In a program like this, which is called a  
token economy(Figure15.13), clients might at first be given tokens for merely attending group therapy sessions.  
Later they will be rewarded only for actually participating in the sessions. Eventually, the tokens can be  
discontinued when the clients receive the reinforcement of being helped by participation in the therapy sessions  
(Jowett Hirst et al., [15.89]; Mullen et al., [15.127]).  
Figure 15.13 A familiar token economy?Do you  
remember checking off items on a list to show  
you'd finished your chores? Or receiving stars or  
other stickers in elementary school for the number  
of books you read? A similar system is used in  
various mental health settings to reward clients  
for behaviors designed to improve their  
psychological functioning.  
Observational Learning T echniques  
W e all learn many things by observing others. Therapists use this principle in modeling therapy, in which clients  
are asked to observe and imitate appropriate models as they perform desired behaviors. In one study, researchers  
successfully treated 4- and 5-year-old children with severe dog phobias by asking them first to watch other children  
play with dogs (see the photo), and then to gradually approach and get physically closer to the dogs themselves  
(May et al., [15.1 15]). When this type of therapy combines live modeling with direct and gradual practice, it is  
called participant modeling. This type of modeling is also effective in social skills training and assertiveness  
training (Figure15.14).  
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Figure 15.14 Observational learningDuring modeling  
therapy , a client might learn how to interview for a job by  
first watching the therapist role-play the part of the  
interviewee. The client then imitates the therapist's behavior  
and plays the same role. Over the course of several sessions,  
the client becomes gradually desensitized to the anxiety of  
interviews.  
Evaluating Behavior Therapies  
Criticisms of behavior therapy fall into three major categories:  
•Generalizability Critics argue that in the real world, clients are not consistently reinforced or punished, and  
their newly acquired behaviors may disappear . Interestingly , a recent study found that drivers who were  
involved in a severe collision (punishment) initially reduced their risky driving, but only for the first month  
after the collision (O'Brien et al., [15.133]). T o deal with this possibility , behavior therapists work to encourage  
clients to better recognize existing real-world rewards and to generate their own internal reinforcements, which  
they can then apply at their own discretion.  
•Neglect of other approaches Some opponents contend that behavior therapies ignore or diminish the  
importance of unconscious, cognitive, and biological factors that also contribute to psychological disorders.  
•Ethics Critics contend that it is unethical for one person to control another's behavior. Behaviorists, however ,  
argue that rewards and punishments already control our behaviors. Behavior therapy actually increases our  
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freedom by making these controls overt and by teaching people how to change their own behavior .  
Despite these criticisms, behavior therapy is generally recognized as one of the most widely researched and  
scientifically documented forms of treatment. It's been shown to be highly effective for numerous problems,  
including phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder , eating disorders, sexual dysfunctions, autism, intellectual  
disabilities, and delinquency (Cusack et al., [15.42]; Spiegler, [15.171]; Stoll & Brooks, [15.174]). For an  
immediate practical application of behavior therapy to your college life, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Do Y ou Have T est Anxiety?  
Nearly everyone is somewhat anxious before a critical exam. If you find this anxiety helpful and invigorating, skip  
this activity . On the other hand, if the days and evenings before a major exam are ruined by your anxiety and you  
sometimes “freeze up” while taking a test, try these tips, based on the three major forms of behavior therapy.  
1.Classical Conditioning This informal type of systematic desensitization will help decrease your feelings of  
anxiety:  
Step 1:Review and practice the relaxation technique taught in Chapter 3.  
Step 2:Create a 10-step “test-taking” hierarchy—starting with the least anxiety-arousing image (perhaps the  
day your instructor first mentions an upcoming exam) and ending with actually taking the exam.  
Step 3:Beginning with the least-arousing image—say, hearing about the exam—picture yourself at each  
stage. While maintaining a calm, relaxed state, mentally work your way through all 10 steps. If you become  
anxious at any stage, stay there, repeating your relaxation technique until the anxiety diminishes.  
Step 4:If you start to feel anxious the night before the exam, or even during the exam itself, remind yourself  
to relax. T ake a few moments to shut your eyes and review how you worked through your hierarchy .  
2.Operant Conditioning One of the best ways to avoid “freezing up” or “blanking out” on a test is to be fully  
prepared. T o maximize your preparation, “shape” your behavior! Remember to start small. Try answering the  
multiple-choice and short answer questions at the end of each major section of the chapter, and then checking  
your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B. Then move on to the longer selfgrading quizzes that are available in the WileyPLUS program. Following each of these “successive  
approximations,” be sure to reward yourself in some way—call a friend, play with your children or pets, watch  
a video, or maybe check your Facebook page.  
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3.Observational Learning T alk with your classmates who are getting good grades. Ask them for tips on how  
they prepare for exams and how they handle their own test anxieties. This type of modeling and observational  
learning can be very helpful—and it's a nice way to make friends.  
Retrieval Practice 15.2 Behavior Therapies  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Describe the main goals of behavior therapy.  
2\.   
________pairs relaxation with a graduated hierarchy of anxiety-producing situations to extinguish the anxiety.  
a. Modeling  
b. Shaping  
c. Systematic desensitization  
d. Maslow's pyramid training  
3\.   
In behavior therapy , ________techniques use shaping and tokens to increase adaptive behaviors.  
a. classical conditioning  
b. modeling  
c. social learning  
d. operant conditioning  
4\.   
In contrast to systematic desensitization, ________uses classical conditioning techniques to create anxiety rather  
than prevent its arousal.  
a. anxiety-modeling therapy  
b. aversion therapy  
c. anxiety therapy  
d. subversion therapy  
5\.   
Asking clients with snake phobias to watch other (nonphobic) people handle snakes is an example of ________  
therapy .  
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a. time out  
b. aversion  
c. participative  
d. modeling  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections  
among the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction to Psychology and Its Research Methods), you learned about psychology's ethical  
guidelines for research. In this chapter, you discovered several behavior therapies for treating psychological  
disorders. What might be the major ethical concerns with behavior therapies?  
.  
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15.3 Biomedical Therapies  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the types of biomedical therapies and their risks and benefits.  
•Describebiomedical therapies.  
•Identifythe major types of drugs used to treat psychological disorders.  
•Explainwhat happens in electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery .  
•Summarizethe risks and benefits associated with biomedical therapies.  
Some problem behaviors seem to be caused, at least in part, by biological disruptions in brain structures,  
biochemistry , and/or genetics. And therapists attempt to improve this disturbed functioning and to relieve symptoms  
through biomedical therapies. Psychiatrists or other medical personnel are generally the only ones who use  
biomedical (biological) therapies. However, in some states, licensed psychologists can prescribe certain medications,  
and they often work with clients receiving biomedical therapies. In this section, we will discuss three aspects of  
biomedical therapies: psychopharmacology, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and psychosurgery.  
Psychopharmacology  
Since the 1950s, the field of psychopharmacologyhas effectively used drugs to relieve or control the major symptoms  
of psychological disorders. In some instances, using a psychotherapeutic drug is similar to administering insulin to  
people with diabetes, whose own bodies fail to manufacture enough. In other cases, drugs have been used to relieve or  
suppress the symptoms of psychological disturbances even when the underlying cause was not thought to be  
biological. As shown in T able15.1, psychotherapeutic drugs are classified into four major categories: antianxiety,  
antipsychotic, mood stabilizer, and antidepressant.  
T able15.1Psychotherapeutic Drug Treatments for Psychological Disorders  
Description  
Examples  
(T rade  
Names)  
Antianxiety Drugs  
Medications used  
to reduce anxiety  
and decrease overarousal in the  
brain; also known  
as anxiolytics or  
minor tranquilizers.  
Antianxiety drugslower the sympathetic activity of the brain—the crisis mode of  
operation—so that anxiety is diminished and the person is calmer and less tense.  
Unfortunately , they're also potentially dangerous because they can reduce alertness,  
coordination, and reaction time. Moreover, they can have a synergistic (intensifying)  
effect with other drugs, which may lead to a severe drug reaction—and even death.  
Ativan  
Halcion  
Klonopin  
Librium  
Restoril  
Tranxene  
V alium  
Xanax  
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Description  
Examples  
(T rade  
Names)  
Antipsychotic  
Drugs  
Medications used  
to diminish or  
eliminate  
symptoms of  
psychosis; also  
known as  
neuroleptics or  
major tranquilizers.  
Antipsychotic drugsreduce the agitated behaviors, hallucinations, delusions, and  
other symptoms associated with psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia. Traditional  
antipsychotics work by decreasing activity at the dopamine receptors in the brain. A  
large number of clients markedly improve when treated with antipsychotic drugs.  
Clozaril  
Invega  
Latuda  
Haldol  
Risperdal  
Seroquel  
Thorazine  
Zyprexa  
Mood-Stabilizer  
Drugs  
Medications used  
to treat the  
combination of  
manic episodes and  
depression  
characteristics of  
bipolar disorders.  
Mood-stabilizer drugshelp steady mood swings, particularly for those suffering from  
bipolar disorder, a condition marked by extremes of both mania and depression.  
Because these drugs generally require up to three or four weeks to take effect, their  
primary use is in preventing future episodes and helping to break the manic-depressive  
cycle.  
Depakote  
Eskalith  
CR  
Lamictal  
Lithium  
Neurontin  
T egretol  
T opamax  
Trileptal  
Antidepressant  
Drugs  
Medications used  
to treat depression,  
some anxiety  
disorders,  
obsessivecompulsive  
disorder,  
posttraumatic stress  
disorder, and  
certain eating  
disorders (such as  
bulimia).  
Antidepressant drugsare used primarily to reduce depression. There are several types  
of antidepressant drugs, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs),  
ser otonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), norepinephrine and  
dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs), and atypical antidepressants. Each class of  
drugs affects neurochemical pathways in the brain in a slightly different way ,  
increasing or decreasing the availability of certain chemicals. SSRIs (such as Paxiland  
Prozac) are by far the most commonly prescribed antidepressants. The atypical  
antidepressants are prescribed for those who fail to respond to, or experience  
undesirable side effects from, other antidepressants. Note that it can take weeks or  
months for antidepressants to achieve their full effect.  
Anafranil  
Celexa  
Cymbalta  
Effexor  
Elavil  
Lexapro  
Nardil  
Norpramin  
Parnate  
Paxil  
Pristiq  
Prozac  
Sarafem  
T ofranil  
W ellbutrin  
Zoloft  
How do the four categories differ? Antianxiety drugs generally create feelings of tranquility and relaxation, while also  
decreasing over-arousal in the brain. In contrast, antipsychotic drugs are designed to diminish or eliminate symptoms  
of psychosis, such as hallucinations and delusions. And mood-stabilizer drugs attempt to level off the emotional highs  
and lows of bipolar disorder . Interestingly , antidepressants are designed to lift depression—hence their name.  
However, they're now being successfully used to treat some anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),  
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and certain eating disorders.  
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Explaining Drug Therapy  
How do drug treatments actually work? For most psychotherapeutic medications, including antidepressants, the bestunderstood action of the drugs is to correct an imbalance in the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain (Figure  
15.15). Surprisingly , research has found that the drug ketamine(sometimes called “Special K”), a dangerous date  
rape/party drug, also works to manage the symptoms of major depression, suicidal behaviors, and bipolar disorders.  
Widely known in the medical field for its anesthetic properties, ketamine changes the levels of brain neurotransmitters  
and appears to decrease thoughts of suicide because it targets parts of the brain responsible for executive and  
emotional processing (Lee et al., [15.103]). Due to its anti-suicide effects, rapid onset, high efficacy , and good  
tolerability , ketamine shows promise as a potential treatment for depression and bipolar disorders (Kishimoto et al.,  
[15.96]; Li et al., [15.106]; Reardon, [15.145]). However , it remains controversial due to the relative lack of empirical  
evidence on its effects, some serious side effects, and the potential for abuse (Zhang et al., [15.107]). For additional,  
intriguing (and controversial) psychotherapeutic drug research, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
a. Serotonin's effect on the brain  
Some people with depression are believed to have lower levels of  
serotonin. Serotonin works in the prefrontal cortex, the  
hippocampus, and other parts of the brain to regulate mood,  
sleep, and appetite, among other things.  
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b. Normal neural transmission  
Sending neurons normally release an excess of neurotransmitters,  
including serotonin. Some of the serotonin locks into receptors  
on the receiving neuron, but excess serotonin is pumped back  
into the sending neuron (called r euptake) for storage and reuse. If  
serotonin is reabsorbed too quickly , there is less available to the  
brain, which may result in depression.  
c. Partial blockage of reuptake by SSRIs  
SSRIs, like Prozac, partially block the normal reuptake of excess  
serotonin, which leaves more serotonin molecules free to  
stimulate receptors on the receiving neuron. This increased  
neural transmission restores the normal balance of serotonin in  
the brain.  
Figure 15.15 How antidepressants affect the  
brainAntidepressants are believed to work by increasing the  
availability of serotonin or norepinephrine, neurotransmitters that  
normally elevate mood and arousal. Shown here is the action of  
some of the most popular antidepressants—Prozac, Paxil, and  
other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).  
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In addition to correcting imbalances in the brain's neurotransmitters, other studies suggest that psychotherapeutic  
drugs, primarily antidepressants, may relieve depression and thoughts of suicide in three additional ways. They may  
increase neurogenesis, the production of new neurons, may increase synaptogenesis, the production of new synapses,  
and/or may stimulate activity in various areas of the brain (Miller & Hen, [15.122]; Samuels et al., [15.157]; W alker  
et al., [15.184]).  
Does “Acid” Cause Mental Illness?  
What do you know about “psychedelic drugs”? Beginning in the 1960s (see the photo), there was considerable debate  
about these drugs, as well as widespread reports of “acid casualties” and increased mental health disorders among  
people who experimented with popular psychedelics, such as LSD, psilocybin (the active ingredient in “magic  
mushrooms”), and mescaline (found in the peyote cactus). As you may know, these drugs have been illegal in the  
United States since 1970 and are classified as schedule 1 drugs—“the most dangerous drugs,” with no medicinal use.  
Surprisingly , two studies contradict these earlier assumptions. In the first study , researchers analyzed data from more  
than 135,000 people who took part in the annual U.S. National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) conducted  
from 2008 to 201 1 (Johansen & Krebs, [15.87]). Of the 14% who reported use of psychedelics, the researchers found  
no increased risk of mental disorders, including schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, psychosis, depression, and suicide  
attempts. The second study , which analyzed 190,000 NSDUH respondents from 2008 to 2012, also found no link  
between psychedelic use and adverse mental health outcomes (Hendricks et al., [15.77]). In fact, both studies  
suggested that psychedelic drug use may have produced lasting positive improvements in mental health. Other  
researchers have reviewed clinical trials, many that were double-blind and placebo-controlled, that showed positive  
relief of anxiety and depression in cancer patients and similar benefits with both alcohol and nicotine addiction, as  
well as in the prevention of suicide (dos Santos et al., [15.50]; Hendricks et al., [15.76]; Nichols, [15.130]).  
What do you think? Should psychedelics be used to treat physical and mental illnesses? Is this recent interest in  
psychedelics a flashback or a flash-in-the-pan? Only further research can fully answer these questions. (In the  
meantime, please remember that our inclusion of this research on psychedelics is not a recommendation for their use  
—either medically or recreationally.)  
Electroconvulsive Therapy and Psychosurgery  
There is a long history of using electrical stimulation to treat psychological disorders. In electroconvulsive therapy  
(ECT), also known as electroshock therapy (EST), a moderate electrical current is passed through the brain. This can  
be done by placing electrodes on the outside of both sides of the head (bilateral ECT) or on only one side of the head  
(unilateral ECT). The current triggers a widespread firing of neurons, or brief seizures. ECT can quickly reverse  
symptoms of certain mental illnesses and often works when other treatments have been unsuccessful. The electric  
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current produces many changes in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including activation of the autonomic  
nervous system, increased secretion of various hormones and neurotransmitters, and changes in the blood–brain  
barrier (Figure15.16).  
Figure 15.16 Electroconvulsive  
therapy (ECT)Modern ECT  
treatments are conducted with  
considerable safety precautions,  
including muscle-relaxant drugs that  
dramatically reduce muscle  
contractions and medication to help  
clients sleep through the procedure.  
Note, however, that ECT is used  
less often today , generally only  
when other treatments have failed,  
due to possibly serious side effects.  
Despite not knowing exactly how ECT works, and the possibility that it may cause some short-term and long-term  
memory problems, the risks of untreated, severe depression are generally considered greater than the risks of ECT  
(Andrade et al., [15.5]; Berman & Prudic, [15.21]). T oday , ECT is used almost exclusively to treat serious depression  
when drugs and psychotherapy have failed or in cases where rapid response is needed—as is the case with suicidal  
clients (Fligelman et al., [15.58]; Kellner et al., [15.92]; V allejo-T orres et al., [15.182]).  
The most extreme, and least used, biomedical therapy is psychosurgery—brain surgery performed to reduce serious,  
debilitating psychological problems. Attempts to change disturbed thoughts, feelings, and behavior by altering the  
brain have a long history . In Roman times, for example, it was believed that a sword wound to the head could relieve  
insanity . In 1936, Portuguese neurologist Egaz Moniz first treated uncontrollable psychoses with a form of  
psychosurgery called a lobotomy, in which he cut the nerve fibers between the frontal lobes (where association areas  
for monitoring and planning behavior are found) and the thalamus and hypothalamus.  
Although these surgeries did reduce emotional outbursts and aggressiveness, some clients were left with debilitating  
brain damage. T wo of the most notable examples of the damage from early lobotomies are Rosemary Kennedy, the  
sister of President John F . Kennedy , and Rose W illiams, sister of American playwright T ennessee Williams. Both  
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women were permanently incapacitated from lobotomies performed in the early 1940s. Thankfully, psychosurgery  
virtually stopped in the mid-1950s, when antipsychotic drugs came into use.  
Evaluating Biomedical Therapies  
Like all other forms of therapy , biomedical therapies have both proponents and critics. In this section, we'll consider  
the pros and cons of each of the biomedical therapies—psychopharmacology , ECT, and psychosurgery.  
Psychopharmacology  
In modern times, psychotherapeutic drugs have led to revolutionary changes in mental health. Before the use of drugs,  
some patients were destined to spend a lifetime in psychiatric institutions. T oday , most improve enough to return to  
their homes and lead successful lives—if they continue to take their medications to prevent relapse.  
However, drug therapy has been criticized on several grounds. First, although drugs may relieve symptoms for some  
people, they seldom provide cures, and some individuals become physically dependent. Furthermore, psychiatric  
medications can cause a variety of side effects, ranging from mild fatigue to severe impairments in memory and  
movement (Lawrence et al., [15.101]; Mentzel et al., [15.120]).  
It's encouraging to note that drug therapy is more effective when combined with talk therapy . As an example,  
researchers have examined whether children and teenagers experiencing clinical depression would benefit from  
receiving cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) along with medication to treat this disorder. In one study , 75 youths  
(ages 8 to 17) received either an antidepressant alone or an antidepressant along with CBT for 6 months (Kennard et  
al., [15.94]). Of those who received only the drug, 26.5% experienced continued depression, compared to only 9% of  
those who received the drug as well as CBT .  
ECT  
As mentioned earlier, ECT is a controversial form of treatment, yet it still serves as a valuable last resort for severe  
depression. In recent years, many therapists have been using an alternative treatment, repetitive transcranial magnetic  
stimulation (rTMS), in which an electromagnetic coil is placed on the scalp. Unlike ECT , which uses electricity to  
stimulate parts of the brain, rTMS uses magnetic pulses (Figure15.17). T o treat depression, the coil is usually placed  
over the prefrontal cortex, a region linked to deeper parts of the brain that regulate mood. Currently, rTMS's  
advantages over ECT are unclear, but studies have shown marked improvement in depression, and clients experience  
fewer side effects (Bakker et al., [15.10]; Y adollahpour et al., [15.195]; Zhang et al., [15.200]).  
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Figure 15.17 Repetitive  
transcranial magnetic stimulation  
(rTMS)Powerful electromagnets  
generate pulsed magnetic fields  
that are targeted at specific areas  
of the brain to treat depression.  
Psychosurgery  
Given that all forms of psychosurgery are generally irreversible and potentially dangerous with serious or even fatal  
side effects, some critics say that it should be banned altogether . For these reasons, psychosurgery is considered  
experimental and remains a highly controversial treatment.  
Recently , psychiatrists have been experimenting with a much more limited and precise neurosurgical procedure called  
deep brain stimulation (DBS). The surgeon drills two tiny holes into the skull and implants electrodes in the area of  
the brain believed to be associated with a specific disorder (Figure15.18). These electrodes are then connected to a  
“pacemaker” implanted in the chest or stomach that sends low-voltage electricity to the problem areas in the brain.  
Over time, this repeated stimulation can bring about noticeable improvement in Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, major  
depression, and other disorders (Fields, [15.57]; Kim et al., [15.95]; Lipsman et al., [15.111]). Research has also  
shown that clients who receive DBS along with antidepressants show lower rates of depression than those who  
receive either treatment alone (Brunoni et al., [15.27]).  
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Figure 15.18 Deep brain stimulation  
(DBS)Stimulation from the implanted  
electrodes in the client's brain may bring  
relief to those suffering from Parkinson's  
disease, epilepsy , major depression, and  
other disorders.  
Before going on, T able15.2 provides a side-by-side comparison of all the major forms of therapy we've discussed so  
far . It will provide you with a handy way to review and master all the key terms and concepts.  
T able15.2Side-by-Side Comparison of Treatments for Psychological Disorders  
T ype of Treatment  
Key  
Assumptions  
and Goals  
Major Techniques Strengths W eaknesses  
Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic  
Key  
assumption  
about cause  
of disorder  
Unconscious,  
unresolved  
conflicts  
Key goal of  
therapy  
Provide  
insight by  
bringing  
unconscious  
thoughts and  
conflicts into  
conscious  
awareness  
Psychoanalysis(Freud)  
•Free association  
•Dream analysis  
•Analysis of  
resistance  
•Analysis of  
transference  
•Interpretation  
Psychodynamic therapies  
•Face-to-face  
•T echniques similar to  
psychoanalysis but  
more likely to offer  
advice and support  
Psychoanalysis  
•Can be  
effective for  
those who  
have the time  
and money  
Psychodynamic  
therapies  
•Benefits  
similar to  
those of  
psychoanalysis  
with shorter  
duration of  
treatment  
•Question of  
repressed memories  
and unconscious  
conflicts  
•Limited applicability  
•Lacks scientific  
support  
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T ype of Treatment  
Key  
Assumptions  
and Goals  
Major Techniques Strengths W eaknesses  
Humanistic  
Key  
assumption  
about cause  
of disorder  
Blocked  
personal  
growth  
Key goal of  
therapy  
Maximize  
clients'  
inherent  
capacity for  
selfactualization,  
free will, and  
selfawareness  
Client-centered therapy  
(Rogers)  
•Empathy  
•Unconditional  
positive regard  
•Genuineness  
•Active listening  
General humanistic  
therapy  
•Emphasis on  
providing an  
accepting atmosphere  
and encouraging  
healthy emotional  
experiences  
•Focus on conscious  
processes and present  
versus past  
experiences  
•Clients responsible  
for discovering their  
own maladaptive  
patterns  
•Recognizes  
positives of  
human nature  
•Some  
empirical  
evidence of  
efficacy  
•Self-actualization  
and self-awareness  
difficult to test  
scientifically  
•Mixed research  
results on specific  
humanistic techniques  
Cognitive  
Key  
assumption  
about cause  
of disorder  
Faulty ,  
distorted  
thinking  
Key goal of  
therapy  
Help clients  
identify and  
correct  
faulty ,  
distorted  
thinking  
•Cognitive  
restructuring  
•Rational-emotive  
behavior therapy  
(REBT) (Ellis)  
•Cognitive-behavior  
therapy (CBT) (Beck)  
•Mindfulness-based  
cognitive therapy  
(MBCT)  
Highly effective  
treatments for  
depression, as  
well as anxiety  
disorders, bulimia  
nervosa, anger  
management,  
addiction, and  
even some  
symptoms of  
schizophrenia and  
insomnia  
•Dysfunctional  
thinking may result  
from, not cause,  
abnormal functioning  
•May neglect  
unconscious  
dynamics and  
importance of client's  
past  
•Success may be due  
to behavior  
techniques, not to  
changes in faulty  
thinking  
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T ype of Treatment  
Key  
Assumptions  
and Goals  
Major Techniques Strengths W eaknesses  
Behavior  
Key  
assumption  
about cause  
of disorder  
Inappropriate  
conditioning  
and learning  
Key goal of  
therapy  
Reduce or  
eliminate  
maladaptive  
behaviors  
and increase  
adaptive  
ones  
•Classical  
conditioning  
(desensitization,  
aversion therapy)  
•Operant conditioning  
(behavior  
modification, shaping,  
token economies)  
•Observational  
learning (modeling,  
social-skills and  
assertiveness training)  
Most widely  
researched and  
scientifically  
documented  
treatments; highly  
effective for  
phobias,  
obsessivecompulsive  
disorder, and other  
psychological  
disorders  
•Effects of treatment  
may not generalize to  
the real world  
•May neglect  
unconscious,  
cognitive, and  
biological processes  
•May be unethical to  
control another's  
behavior  
Biomedical  
Key  
assumption  
about cause  
of disorder  
Problems  
with brain  
structure or  
functioning,  
genetics,  
biochemistry  
Key goal of  
therapy  
Improve  
structural or  
biochemical  
brain  
functioning  
and relieve  
symptoms  
•Psychopharmacology  
•Electroconvulsive  
therapy  
•Psychosurgery  
Often effective  
when problems  
don't respond to  
other treatments  
•Psychopharmacology  
may relieve  
symptoms but seldom  
provides cures; also,  
problems with side  
effects and possible  
physical drug  
dependence  
•ECT and  
psychosurgery may  
have dangerous and  
permanent side effects  
Retrieval Practice 15.3 Biomedical Therapies  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer  
button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Compare psychiatry and psychology in their use of biomedical therapies.  
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2\.   
The effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs is thought to result primarily from decreasing activity at which receptors?  
a. Serotonin  
b. Dopamine  
c. Epinephrine  
d. All these options  
3\.   
In electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), ________.  
a. current is never applied to the left hemisphere  
b. seizures activate the central and peripheral nervous systems, stimulate hormone and neurotransmitter release,  
and change the blood–brain barrier  
c. convulsions are extremely painful and long lasting  
d. most clients receive hundreds of treatments because it is safer than in the past  
4\.   
ECT is used primarily to treat ________.  
a. phobias  
b. conduct disorders  
c. severe depression  
d. schizophrenia  
5\.   
The original form of psychosurgery developed by Egaz Moniz disconnected the ________lobes from the thalamus  
and hypothalamus.  
a. occipital  
b. parietal  
c. temporal  
d. frontal  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among  
the subfields of psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 16 (Social Psychology), you will learn about prejudice and discrimination. In this chapter, you discovered  
several myths about therapy . How do you think stereotypes about biomedical therapies, such as drug therapies, ECT ,  
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and psychosurgery , develop?  
.  
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Print this page  
15.4 Psychotherapy in Perspective  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the key issues in psychotherapy.  
•Summarizethe goals and overall effectiveness of psychotherapy .  
•Describegroup, marital, family , and telehealth/electronic therapies.  
•Discussthe issues involved in institutionalization.  
•Identifythe key cultural and gender issues important in therapy .  
•Summarizethe major career options for someone interested in becoming a mental health professional.  
It's currently estimated that there are more than a thousand approaches to psychotherapy , and the number is continuing to rise  
(Gaudiano et al., [15.62]; Magnavita & Anchin, [15.112]). Given this high number and wide variety of approaches, how would you  
choose one for yourself or someone you know? In the first part of this section, we discuss five goals common to all psychotherapies.  
Then we explore specific formats for therapy as well as considerations of culture and gender. Our aim is to help you synthesize the  
material in this chapter and put what you have learned about each of the major forms of therapy into a broader context.  
Therapy Goals and Effectiveness  
All major forms of therapy are designed to help the client in five specific areas (Figure15.19). Although most therapists work with  
clients in several of these areas, the emphasis varies according to the therapist's training and whether it is psychodynamic, cognitive,  
humanistic, behaviorist, or biomedical. Clinicians who regularly borrow freely from various theories are said to take an eclectic  
approach.  
Figure 15.19 The five most common goals of therapyMost therapies focus on one or more of these five goals. Can you identify which  
would be of most interest to psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, and behaviorist therapists?  
Does therapy work? After years of controlled studies and meta-analysis—a method of statistically combining and analyzing data from  
many studies—researchers have fairly clear evidence that it does. Furthermore, the major nonbiomedical therapies are as effective as  
biomedical therapies, and combined treatments are more effective than either of these alone (Cuijpers, [15.39]; W eisz et al., [15.189]).  
See Figure15.20.  
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Figure 15.20 Is therapy generally effective?An early meta-analytic  
review combined studies of almost 25,000 people and found that the  
average person who received treatment was better off than 75% of the  
untreated control clients (Smith et al., [15.169]; Smith & Glass,  
[15.168]).  
Studies also show that short-term treatments can sometimes be as effective as long-term treatments and that several therapies are  
equally effective for various disorders (Goldstone, [15.64]; Goodyer et al., [15.65]; Lilliengren et al., [15.110]). Even informal therapy  
techniques, like watching romantic comedies, have led to increased marital satisfaction (see the following Research Challenge).  
Research Challenge Can W atching Movies Prevent Divorce?  
As mentioned in Chapter 10, the U.S. divorce rate has been declining since the 1970s. However, still over a third of modern marriages  
end in divorce (Swanson, [15.176]). Numerous secular and religious institutions have attempted to reduce this rate with various early  
marriage intervention programs. To examine whether simple self-help strategies, such as watching and discussing movies about  
relationships, might offer some of the same benefits as these professionally led intervention programs, researchers randomly assigned  
174 couples to one of four groups (Rogge et al., [15.149]):  
•Group 1 (control) received no training or instructions.  
•Group 2 (conflict management) learned active listening strategies to help discuss heated issues.  
•Group 3 (compassion and acceptance training) learned strategies for finding common ground and showing empathy.  
•Group 4 (minimal intervention—movie and talk) attended a 10-minute lecture on relationship awareness and how watching  
couples in movies could help increase awareness of their own behaviors.  
Members of all the groups were similar in terms of age, education, ethnicity, relationship satisfaction, and other dimensions.  
Following the initial assignment to groups, Group 1 received no training at all. Groups 2 and 3 attended weekly lectures, completed  
homework assignments, and met with a trained therapist periodically. In contrast, Group 4 attended a 10-minute lecture, watched a  
romantic comedy , and then discussed 12 questions about the screen couple's interactions (such as, “Did they try using humor to keep  
things from getting nasty?”). They were then sent home with a list of 47 relationship-oriented movies and allowed to choose their  
favorite one to watch and discuss once a week for the next month.  
The researchers followed up with all couples 3 years later to see which of these approaches was most effective for preventing divorce.  
Much to their surprise, couples in all three of the intervention groups were much less likely to get divorced than those in the control  
group. Specifically , 24% of couples in the control group were divorced, compared to only 11% of those in any of the other three  
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groups. Even more surprising, this study shows that a simple self-help strategy of watching and discussing five relationship movies  
over 1 month's time can be just as effective at reducing the divorce or separation rate as more intensive early marriage counseling  
programs led by trained psychologists.  
Do you see how this study has exciting wide-scale, national applications? If “movie date night” can double as therapy, many U.S.  
couples might be saved from the very high emotional and financial costs of divorce. What about your own current or future  
relationships? If simply sharing and discussing a relationship movie now and then with your romantic partner might strengthen that  
relationship, why not try it? Y ou can learn more about this study (and see a list of recommended movies with guided discussion  
questions) at www .couples-research.com.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Rogge et al., [15.149]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly  
assigned to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most  
textbooks and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided,  
will help you become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
As we've just seen, some studies find that most therapies are equally effective for various disorders. However , other studies suggest  
that certain disorders are better treated with specific approaches. For example, a review of the literature shows that CBT and  
psychodynamic therapy are the most effective for depression (Goldstone, [15.64]). In contrast, symptoms of schizophrenia can be  
significantly relieved with medication (Bullis & Hofmann, [15.28]; Gillihan & Foa, [15.63]; Iglesias et al., [15.84]; Short & Thomas,  
[15.165]).  
Finally , in recent years, evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP)has been gaining momentum. As you have seen throughout  
this text, psychology is founded on empirically supported evidence backed by rigorous scientific standards. However, when it comes  
to therapy and treatment decisions for particular clients, relying solely on research can be difficult. Evidence for some disorders is  
conflicting or nonexistent. Furthermore, each client has his or her own specific characteristics, culture, and preferences, and those  
needs must be respected when designing the optimal treatment plan.  
A special task force of the American Psychological Association recognized these competing positions, which led to their endorsement  
of EBPP (AP A Presidential T ask Force, [15.8]). As you can see in Figure15.21, this approach provides flexibility for the clinician,  
while also incorporating the needs of the client and the best scientific evidence (Hamilton et al., [15.72]; Jordan et al., [15.88];  
Kaminer & Eagle, [15.90]). Like all other movements, EBPP has been criticized. But this type of empirically based research promises  
to be helpful for therapists and clients alike in their treatment decisions.  
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Figure 15.21 Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP)The  
ideal treatment plan has been compared to a three-legged stool,  
supported by: (1) the best available research regarding whether  
and why a specific treatment works, (2) the therapist's expertise,  
experience, and judgment, and (3) the client's personal  
characteristics, culture, and preferences.  
Before going on, note that the most important factor in effective therapy is the relationship between the therapist and the client. This  
bond, known as the therapeutic alliance, should be one of mutual trust, respect, understanding, and cooperation (Constantino et al.,  
[15.37]; Doran et al., [15.49]; Zilcha-Mano et al., [15.201]). Unfortunately , this is generally not the case with radio and television socalled therapists. Moreover, there is no assurance that these individuals have adequate training or licensing— therapistand counselor  
are generally not protected, licensed terms. For more tips on finding a qualified therapist for yourself or a loved one, see Table 15.3 in  
a later section and the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Choosing a Therapist  
How do you find a good therapist for your specific needs? If you have the time (and money) to explore options, there are several steps  
you can take. First, you might consult your psychology instructor, college counseling system, or family physician for specific referrals.  
In addition, most HMOs and health insurers provide lists of qualified professionals. Next, call the referred therapists and ask for an  
opportunity to discuss some questions. Y ou could ask what their training was like, what approach they use, what their fees are, and  
whether they participate in your insurance plan.  
Finding a therapist takes time and energy . If you need immediate help—you're having suicidal thoughts or are the victim of abuse—  
you should see if your community is one of the many that have medical hospital emergency services and telephone hotlines that  
provide counseling services on a 24-hour basis. Most colleges and universities also have counseling centers that provide immediate,  
short-term therapy to students free of charge.  
Finally , if you're concerned about a friend or family member who might need therapy , you can follow these tips to help locate a  
therapist and then possibly offer to go with him or her on the first appointment. If the individual refuses help and the problem affects  
you, it is often a good idea to seek therapy yourself. Y ou will gain insights and skills that will help you deal with the situation more  
effectively .  
For general help in locating a skilled therapist, identifying what types of initial questions to ask, learning how to gain the most benefits  
during therapy , and so on, consult the American Psychological Association (AP A) website.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
If you were looking for a therapist, would you want the therapist's gender to be the same as yours? Why or why not?  
2\.   
Do you think all insurance companies should be required to offer mental health coverage? Why or why not?  
Therapy Formats  
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The therapies described earlier in this chapter are conducted primarily in a face-to-face, therapist-to-client format. In this section, we  
focus on several major alternatives: group, family, and marital therapies, which treat multiple individuals simultaneously , and  
telehealth/electr onic therapy, which treats individuals via the Internet, e-mail, and/or smartphones.  
Group Therapies  
In group therapies, multiple people meet together to work toward therapeutic goals. T ypically , a group of 8 to 10 people meets with a  
therapist on a regular basis to talk about problems in their lives.  
A variation on group therapy is the self-help group. Unlike other group approaches, self-help groups are not guided by a professional.  
They are simply circles of people who share a common problem, such as alcoholism, obesity, or breast cancer , and who meet to give  
and receive support. Programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, and Spenders Anonymous are examples of  
self-help groups.  
Although group members don't get the same level of individual attention found in one-on-one therapies, group and self-help therapies  
provide their own unique advantages (Bateganya et al., [15.15]; Castillo et al., [15.35]; Friedman et al., [15.61]). They are far less  
expensive than one-on-one therapies and provide a broader base of social support. Group members also can learn from each other's  
experiences, share insights and coping strategies, and role-play social interactions together.  
Interestingly , researchers have studied group sessions in 12-step programs, like Alcoholics Anonymous, and they've found that group  
participants suffering from a combination of social anxiety disorders and substance abuse disorders, as well as recovering alcoholics,  
show lower rates of relapse than those who don't participate in these self-help groups. This is particularly true if they also provide help  
to others (Pagano et al., [15.140], [15.139]). In sum, research on self-help groups for alcoholism, obesity , and other disorders suggests  
that they can be very effective, either alone or in combination with individual psychotherapy (Kendra et al., [15.93]; McGillicuddy et  
al., [15.118]; O'Farrell et al., [15.134]). Bear in mind that therapists often recommend these alternative formats to their clients as an  
additional resource while they continue in individual therapy .  
Marital and Family Therapies  
Given that a family or marriage is a system of interdependent parts, the problem of any one individual inevitably affects everyone.  
Therefore, all members are potential beneficiaries of therapy (Gunn et al., [15.70]; McGeorge et al., [15.117]; Smith, [15.131]). The  
line between family and marital or couples therapy is often blurred. Here, our discussion will focus on family therapy, in which the  
primary aim is to change maladaptive family interaction patterns (Figure15.22). All members of the family attend therapy sessions,  
though at times the therapist may see family members individually or in twos or threes.  
Figure 15.22 Family therapyMany families initially come  
into therapy believing that one member is the cause of all  
their problems. However , family therapists often find that this  
“identified client” is a scapegoat for deeper disturbances.  
How could changing ways of interacting within the family  
system promote the health of individual family members and  
the family as a whole?  
Family therapy is useful in treating a number of disorders and clinical problems. For instance, the therapist can help families improve  
their communication styles and reframe their problems as family issues rather than individual issues. Family therapy can also be the  
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most favorable setting for the treatment of adolescent substance abuse and eating disorders (Dodge, [15.48]; Horigian & Szapocnik,  
[15.80]; Kanbur & Harrison, [15.91]).  
T elehealth/Electronic Therapy  
T oday , millions of people are receiving advice and professional therapy in electronic formats, such as the Internet, e-mail, virtual  
reality (VR), and interactive web-based conference systems. This latest form of electronic therapy , often referred to as telehealth,  
allows clinicians to reach more clients and provide them with greater access to information regarding their specific problems.  
Studies have long shown that therapy outcomes improve with increased client contact, and the electronic/telehealth format may be the  
easiest and most cost-effective way to increase this contact (Acierno et al., [15.1]; Ophuis et al., [15.136]; Schröder et al., [15.161]). A  
recent study of 132 veterans suffering from PTSD found that home-based telehealth treatment was as effective as standard in-person  
therapy , and it also greatly reduced the travel time, travel cost, lost work, and stigma that can be associated with in-person therapy  
(Acierno et al., [15.2]).  
Using electronic options such as the Internet and smartphones does provide alternatives to traditional one-on-one therapies, but, as you  
might expect, these approaches also raise concerns. Professional therapists fear, among other things, that without interstate and  
international licensing or a governing body to regulate this type of therapy , there are no means to protect clients from unethical  
practices or incompetent therapists. What do you think? W ould you be more likely to participate in therapy if it were offered via your  
smartphone, e-mail, or a website? Or is this too impersonal for you?  
If you've enjoyed this section on the various forms and formats of psychotherapy , and are interested in seeking therapy for yourself or  
someone else, or are considering a career as a therapist, refer to T able15.3. It provides a handy and quick overview of the major types  
of mental health professionals.  
T able15.3Careers in Mental Health  
Most colleges have counseling or career centers with numerous resources and trained staff to help you with your career choices. T o  
give you an overview of the general field of psychotherapy , we've included a brief summary of the major types of mental health  
professionals, degrees, required education beyond the bachelor's degree, job description, and type of training.  
Major Types of Mental Health Professionals  
Occupational  
Title  
Degree Nature of Training  
Clinical  
psychologists  
PhD (doctor  
of  
philosophy)  
PsyD  
(doctor of  
psychology)  
Most clinical psychologists have a doctoral degree with training in research and clinical practice and a  
supervised one-year internship in a psychiatric hospital or mental health facility . As clinicians, they work  
with clients suffering from mental disorders, but many also work in colleges and universities as teachers  
and researchers.  
Counseling  
psychologists  
MA (master  
of arts)  
PhD (doctor  
of  
philosophy)  
PsyD  
(doctor of  
psychology)  
EdD (doctor  
of  
education)  
Counseling psychologists typically have a doctoral degree with training that focuses on less severe mental  
disorders, such as emotional, social, vocational, educational, and health-related concerns. In addition to  
providing psychotherapy , other career paths are open, such as teaching, research, and vocational counseling.  
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Occupational  
Title  
Degree Nature of Training  
Pastoral  
counselors  
None  
MA (master  
of arts)  
PhD (doctor  
of  
philosophy)  
DD (doctor  
of divinity)  
Pastoral counselors combine spiritual advice and psychotherapy. Generally , they must hold a license and at  
least a master's or doctoral degree in their field of study . They typically work for counseling centers,  
churches, community programs, and hospitals.  
Psychiatrists  
MD (doctor  
of  
medicine)  
Psychiatrists must complete four years of medical school followed by an internship and residency in  
psychiatry , which include supervised practice in psychotherapy techniques and biomedical therapies. In  
most states in the United States, psychiatrists are the only mental health specialists who can regularly  
prescribe drugs.  
Psychiatric  
nurses  
RN  
(registered  
nurse)  
MA (master  
of arts)  
PhD (doctor  
of  
philosophy)  
Psychiatric nurses usually have a bachelor's or master's degree in nursing, followed by advanced training in  
the care of patients in hospital settings and clients in mental health facilities.  
Psychiatric  
social  
workers  
MSW  
(master of  
social work)  
DSW  
(doctor of  
social work)  
PhD (doctor  
of  
philosophy)  
Psychiatric social workers usually have a master's degree in social work, followed by advanced training and  
experience in hospitals or outpatient settings working with people who have psychological problems.  
School  
psychologists  
MA (master  
of arts)  
PhD (doctor  
of  
philosophy)  
PsyD  
(doctor of  
psychology)  
EdD (doctor  
of  
education)  
School psychologists generally begin with a bachelor's degree in psychology, followed by graduate training  
in psychological assessment and counseling for school-related issues and problems.  
Sources: Jaekel & Kortegast, [15.86]; Metz, [15.121]; Silvia et al., [15.166]; Sternberg, [15.173]; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,  
[15.181].  
Institutionalization  
W e all believe in the right to freedom. But what about people who threaten suicide or are potentially violent? Should some people be  
involuntarily committed to protect them from their own mental disorders? Despite Hollywood film portrayals, forced  
institutionalization of people with mental illness is generally reserved for only the most serious and life-threatening situations. And  
even so, it poses serious ethical problems.  
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Involuntary Commitment  
The legal grounds for involuntary commitment vary from state to state and nation to nation (e.g., Holder et al., [15.78]; Ryan &  
Callagan, [15.154]). Generally , though, people can be sent to psychiatric hospitals against their will in the following circumstances.  
•They are believed to pose a danger to themselves (usually suicidal) or to others (potentially violent).  
•They are in serious need of treatment (indicated by bizarre behavior and loss of contact with reality).  
•There is no reasonable, less restrictive alternative.  
In emergencies, psychologists and other professionals can authorize temporary commitment for 24 to 72 hours. During this  
observation period, laboratory tests can be performed to rule out medical illnesses that could be causing the symptoms. Clients can  
also receive psychological testing, medication, and short-term therapy during this period.  
Deinstitutionalization  
Although the courts have established stringent requirements for involuntary commitment, abuses do occur. There are also problems  
with long-term, chronic institutionalization. And properly housing and caring for people with mental illness is very expensive. In  
response to these problems, many states have a policy of deinstitutionalization, which involves discharging clients from mental  
hospitals as soon as possible and discouraging admissions.  
Deinstitutionalization has been a humane and positive step for many. But some clients are discharged without continuing provision for  
their protection. Many of these people end up living in rundown hotels or understaffed nursing homes, in jails, or on the street with no  
shelter or means of support (e.g., Roy et al., [15.152]; V entriglio et al., [15.183]). Keep in mind that a sizable percentage of homeless  
people suffer from some form of serious mental illness (Allday , [15.4]; Diaz et al., [15.44]; National Alliance on Mental Illness, n.d.).  
(The rise in homelessness is also due to such economic factors as increased unemployment, underemployment, and a shortage of lowincome housing.)  
What else can be done? Rather than returning clients to state hospitals, most clinicians suggest expanding and improving community  
care (Figure15.23). They also recommend that general hospitals be equipped with special psychiatric units where those who are  
acutely ill receive inpatient care. For less disturbed individuals and chronically ill clients, they often recommend walk-in clinics, crisis  
intervention services, improved residential treatment facilities, and psychosocial and vocational rehabilitation. State hospitals can then  
be reserved for the most unmanageable cases.  
Figure 15.23 Outpatient  
supportCommunity mental health  
(CMH) centers are a prime example  
of alternatives to institutionalization.  
CMH centers provide outpatient  
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services, such as individual and  
group therapy and prevention  
programs. They also coordinate  
short-term inpatient care and  
programs for discharged clients,  
such as halfway houses and aftercare  
services. The major downside of  
CMH centers and their support  
programs is that they are expensive.  
Investing in primary prevention  
programs (such as more intervention  
programs for people at high risk for  
mental illness) could substantially  
reduce these costs.  
Gender and Cultural Diversity Therapy in Action  
In this concluding section, we'll examine important cultural and gender issues in therapy . As you can probably imagine, we find both  
similarities and differences in therapies across cultures. W e find, too, that gender poses several key issues for therapy .  
Cultural Issues in Therapy  
The therapies described in this chapter are based on W estern European and North American culture. Does this mean they are unique to  
this culture? Or do these psychotherapists accomplish some of the same things that, say , a native healer or shaman does? When we  
look at therapies in all cultures, we find that they have certain key features in common (Barnow & Balkir, [15.14]; Braakmann,  
[15.26]; Hall & Ibaraki, [15.71]):  
•Naming the problem People often feel better just knowing that others experience the same problem and that the therapist has had  
experience with it.  
•Demonstrating the right qualities Clients must feel that the therapist is caring, competent, approachable, and concerned with  
finding solutions to their problems.  
•Establishing credibility W ord-of-mouth testimonials and status symbols, such as diplomas on the wall, establish a therapist's  
credibility . A native healer may earn credibility by serving as an apprentice to a revered healer .  
•Placing the problem in a familiar framework Some cultures believe evil spirits cause psychological disorders, so therapy is  
directed toward eliminating these spirits. Similarly , in cultures that emphasize the importance of early childhood experiences and  
the unconscious mind as the cause of mental disorders, therapy will be framed around these familiar issues.  
•Applying techniques to bring relief In all cultures, therapy includes action. Either the client or the therapist must do something,  
and what the therapist does must fit the client's expectations—whether it is performing a ceremony to expel demons or talking with  
the client about his or her thoughts and feelings.  
•Meeting at a special time and place The fact that therapy occurs outside the client's everyday experiences seems to be an essential  
and shared feature of all therapies.  
Although there are basic similarities in therapies across cultures, there are also significant differences. In the traditional W estern  
European and North American model, the emphasis is on the client's self and on his or her having independence and control over his  
or her life—qualities that are highly valued in individualistic cultures. In contrast, within collectivist cultures ( Figure15.24), the focus  
of therapy is on interpersonal sensitivity , interdependence, and the acceptance of life realities (Lee et al., [15.102]; Liao et al.,  
[15.107]; Seay & Sun, [15.162]).  
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Figure 15.24 Emphasizing  
InterdependenceIn Japanese  
Naikan therapy , clients sit  
quietly from 5:30 a.m. to 9:00  
p.m. for seven days and are  
visited by an interviewer  
every 90 minutes. During this  
time, they reflect on their  
relationships with others in  
order to discover personal  
guilt for having been  
ungrateful and troublesome  
and to develop gratitude  
toward those who have  
helped them (Itoh & Hikasa,  
[15.85]; Zhang et al.,  
[15.199]).  
Not only does culture affect the types of therapy that are developed, but it also influences the perceptions of the therapist. What one  
culture considers abnormal behavior may be quite common—and even healthy—in others. For this reason, recognizing cultural  
differences is key to building trust between therapists and clients and for effecting behavioral change (La Roche et al., [15.100];  
Strauss et al., [15.175]; W eiler et al., [15.188]).  
Gender and Therapy  
In our individualistic W estern culture, men and women present different needs and problems to therapists. Research has identified four  
unique concerns related to gender and psychotherapy (Moulding, [15.126]; Sáenz Herrero, [15.156]; Zerbe Enns et al., [15.197]):  
1.Rates of diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders W omen are diagnosed and treated for mental illness at a much higher rate  
than men. Are women “sicker” than men as a group, or are they just more willing to admit their problems? Or are the categories of  
illness biased against women? More research is needed to answer these questions.  
2.Stresses of poverty W omen are disproportionately likely to be poor . Poverty contributes to stress, which is directly related to  
many psychological disorders.  
3.V iolence against women Rape, incest, and sexual harassment—which are much more likely to happen to women than to men—  
may lead to depression, insomnia, posttraumatic stress disorder, eating disorders, and other problems.  
4.Stresses of multiple roles and gender-role conflict Despite the many changes in gender roles in modern times, restrictive  
definitions of femininity and masculinity still limit both genders' well-being and human potential. Furthermore, most men and  
women today serve in many roles, as family members, students, wage earners, and so forth. The conflicting demands of their  
multiple roles often create special stresses unique to each gender.  
Therapists must be sensitive to possible connections between clients' problems and their gender, as well as to issues of gender  
diversity (De Bord et al., [15.43]; Levant & Powell, [15.104]). Rather than just emphasizing drugs to relieve depression, it may be  
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more appropriate for therapists to explore ways to relieve the stresses of multiple roles or poverty for both women and men. Can you  
see how helping a single parent identify parenting resources, such as play groups, parent support groups, and high-quality child care,  
might be just as effective at relieving depression as prescribing drugs? In the case of men, can you see how relieving loneliness or  
depression might help decrease their greater problems with substance abuse and aggression?  
W e'd like to leave this chapter on a positive note. The psychotherapy techniques we've discussed are generally directed toward  
improving psychological disorders. However , psychologists are also committed to enhancing overall well-being and daily  
psychological functioning. In line with that, we offer the following.  
Psychology and Y our Personal Success What Are the Keys to Good Mental Health?  
As you've seen throughout this text, psychology focuses on three major areas—thoughts, feelings, and actions. Therefore, to increase  
your everyday well-being and protect your mental health, consider the following research-based tips for each area:  
1.Recognize and control your thoughts. W ould you like to be happier and more often in a great mood? Y ou might start by  
reviewing and implementing the suggestions in the Psychology and Y our Personal Successsection on happiness in Chapter 12.  
Also, as discussed earlier, the three Cs of Beck's cognitive therapy (catching, challenging, and changing our faulty thought  
processes) are key to successful therapy—as well as in everyday life.  
Research also finds that having a positive view of the future and an optimistic, attributional style are major contributors to mental  
health (Kleiman et al., [15.97]; Roepke & Seligman, [15.146]; Sachsenweger et al., [15.155]). Depressed people often suffer from  
a depressive attribution styleof thinking, which means that they typically attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global  
causes. For example, “I failed because I'm unlucky , I have been throughout my life, and it affects all parts of my life.” The good  
news is that social connections with others, which we discuss later in this list, can reduce this type of thinking and improve overall  
cognitive functioning (Bourassa et al., [15.25]; Cruwys et al., [15.40]).  
In addition, there is a wealth of research on the power of meditation in recognizing and gaining control of your thought processes.  
As discussed in Chapter 3, mindfulness-based stress r eduction (MBSR)is linked with positive brain changes, as well as numerous  
health benefits, from better concentration and physical health to improved mental well-being (Hatchard et al., [15.73]; Shapiro &  
Carlson, [15.164]; Thomas et al., [15.178]).  
2.Acknowledge and express your feelings. Although we all have negative emotions and conflicts that often need to be  
acknowledged and resolved, as a general rule, recognizing and expressing your positiveemotions, particularly feelings of  
gratitude, can be a major avenue to mental health (see again Chapter 12). Noting what you're thankful for—from your significant  
other to catching the bus or subway before the doors close—will definitely improve your ability to cope with life's challenges.  
Being grateful also tends to increase your self-esteem and overall well-being (Drążkowski et al., [15.51]; Morgan et al., [15.125];  
Y u et al., 2016).  
Interestingly , well-being therapy (WBT), which focuses on personal growth and on noticing and savoring the positive aspects of  
our lives, has been successful in promoting overall mental health, as well as in increasing resilience and sustained recovery from  
several psychological disorders (Nierenberg et al., [15.131]; Ruini & Fava, [15.153]).  
Empathy is also critical to mental health (Andreychik & Lewis, [15.6]; Levy-Gigi & Shamay-Tsoory , [15.105]). As you recall  
from our earlier discussion of Rogers's client-centered therapy , empathy involves being a sensitive listener who understands and  
shares another's inner experience. The good news is that when you're being empathic, you're improving not only another person's  
self-acceptance and mental health, but also your own. In short, compassionate sharing of feelings and experiences benefits both  
parties—perhaps because it helps all of us to feel more accepted and less alone during life's inevitable ups and downs.  
Finally , love for yourselfmay be the most significant emotional key to protecting your mental health. Self-care and selfcompassion are not “selfish”! Self-compassion refers to a kind and nurturing attitude toward yourself, and research shows that it is  
positively linked with psychological flexibility and well-being (Homan, [15.79]; Marshall & Brockman, [15.114]; Stephenson et  
al., [15.172]). In other words, prioritize your well-being. When you're feeling frustrated and overwhelmed, allow yourself to say  
“no.” Along with all the resources for coping mentioned in Chapter 3, keep in mind that “no” is a complete sentence. Y ou don't  
have to explain your reasons for taking care of and loving yourself.  
3.Recognize and change your behaviors. As discussed in several chapters of this text, “simply” eating the right food, getting  
enough exercise and sleep, and spending time in nature are all essential to our well-being and may help protect our mental health  
(Song et al., [15.170]; W assing et al., [15.186]; White & Eyber, [15.190]). Surprisingly , research finds that even moderate exercise  
—20 to 30 minutes of walking a day—can prevent episodes of depression in the long term (Mammen & Faulkerner, [15.1 13]).  
Other research suggests that moderate exercise may be as helpful as psychotherapy or antidepressants (Ku et al., [15.98]; Kvam et  
al., [15.99]).  
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A second behavioral change that increases psychological health is to make someone else feel good. Studies show that volunteering  
and expressing kindness to others has a cyclical effect—doing a good deed for others makes them happier, which in turns makes  
you happier (Anik et al., [15.7]; Raposa et al., [15.144]; Xi et al., [15.193])! As mentioned, spending time in nature is important to  
mental health, but it also unexpectedly increases our willingness to help. In a very simple field experiment, confederates (people  
who were part of the experiment) accidentally dropped a glove while walking in an urban green park filled with large trees, lawns,  
and flowers (Guéguen & Stefan, [15.69]). Researchers found that passersby who saw the dropping of the glove after walking  
through the park were far more likely to help by picking up the glove than those who had not yet entered the park.  
Perhaps the best action you can take to protect your mental health is to enjoy and maintain your social connections (see the photo).  
Recent research shows that people who feel more connected to others have lower rates of anxiety and depression (Bourassa et al.,  
[15.25]; McLeigh, [15.1 19]). For this and many other reasons, we need to remind ourselves to spend as much time as possible with  
our friends and loved ones, whether it's going on vacation or just watching a movie together.  
One final tip for mental health—try writing! J. K. Rowling discovered the power of writing as a therapeutic tool in her struggles with  
depression. Like many successful figures, Rowling found that it provided structure for her daily life while helping her to get out of her  
own head. Empirical research finds that writing about stressful events in your life not only reduces their emotional impact but also  
may improve your overall physical and mental health—in short, your general well-being (Alexander, [15.3]; Carpenter , [15.34];  
Pulverman et al., [15.143]).  
… the idea of just wandering off to a cafe with a notebook and writing and seeing where that takes me for awhile is just bliss.  
—J. K. Rowling  
Retrieval Practice 15.4 Psychotherapy in Perspective  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking  
in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Discuss eclectic psychotherapy.  
2\.   
A(n) ________group does not have a professional leader, and members assist each other in coping with a specific problem.  
a. self-help  
b. encounter  
c. peer  
d. behavior  
3\.   
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________treats the family as a unit, and members work together to solve problems.  
a. A version therapy  
b. An encounter group  
c. A self-help group  
d. Family therapy  
4\.   
Which of the following is nota culturally universal feature of therapy?  
a. Naming the problem  
b. Demonstrating the right qualities  
c. Establishing rapport among family members  
d. Placing the problem in a familiar framework  
5\.   
A Japanese therapy designed to help clients discover personal guilt for having been ungrateful and troublesome to others and to  
develop gratitude toward those who have helped them is known as ________.  
a. Kyoto therapy  
b. Okado therapy  
c. Naikan therapy  
d. Nissan therapy  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction and Research Methods), you studied research methods, including the experiment. In this chapter , you  
learned that research supports the effectiveness of therapy in reducing symptoms of mental illness. Imagine that you are a researcher  
who wants to compare the relative effectiveness of two types of therapy to treat major depression. How would you go about designing  
an experiment to do that?


	16. Chapter 16

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Print this page  
16.1 Social Cognition  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the field of social psychology and its largest subfield, social cognition.  
•Definesocial psychology and social cognition.  
•Discussthe attributional process and its errors, biases, and cultural factors.  
•Identifyattitudes and their three components.  
•Summarizehow attitudes are formed and changed.  
•Discussprejudice, its three components, and the factors that increase or decrease it.  
Social psychology, one of the largest branches in the field of psychology , focuses on how other people influence our thoughts, feelings,  
and actions. In turn, one of its largest and most important subfields, social cognition, examines the way we think about and interpret  
ourselves and others. Interestingly , we now know that several areas of the prefrontal cortex are most active when we're thinking and  
behaving socially and that these areas are much larger in the human brain than in other animals (Figure16.1). In this section, we will look  
at three of the key topics in social cognition—attributions, attitudes, and prejudice.  
Figure 16.1 Across the speciesThe prefrontal cortex of human beings is  
proportionately larger than that of other animals. In addition, it is very active  
during social behavior, suggesting that it plays an important role in human  
social functioning.  
Attributions  
Have you ever been in a serious argument with a loved one—perhaps a parent, close friend, or romantic partner? If so, how did you react?  
W ere you overwhelmed with feelings of anger? Did you attribute the fight to the other person's ugly , mean temper and consider ending the  
relationship? Or did you calm yourself with thoughts of how he or she is normally a rational person and therefore must be unusually upset  
by something that happened at work or elsewhere?  
Can you see how these two alternative explanations, or attributions, for the causes of behavior or events can either destroy or maintain  
relationships? The study of attributions is a major topic in social cognition and social psychology . Everyone wants to understand and  
explain why people behave as they do and why events occur as they do. Humans are known to be the only reason-seeking animals! But  
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social psychologists have discovered another explanation: Developing logical attributions for behavior makes us feel safer and more in  
control (Heider, [16.1 14]; Lindsay et al., [16.170]). Unfortunately , our attributions are frequently marred by several attributional biases and  
errors.  
Attributional Errors and Biases  
Think back to the example above. Do you recognize how attributing the fight to the bad character of the other person without considering  
possible situational factors could result from misguided biases in thinking? Suppose a new student joins your class and seems distant, cold,  
and uninterested in interaction. It's easy to conclude that she's unfriendly , and maybe even “stuck-up”—a dispositional (personality)  
attribution. If you later observed her in a one-to-one interaction with close friends, you might be surprised to find that she is very warm  
and friendly . In other words, her behavior apparently depends on the situation—a possibility you initially overlooked.  
Along the same lines, a recent study found that math and science instructors at one public university who said that the greatest barriers to  
student learning were the internal deficiencies of the students were also the ones who used fewer effective teaching methods (Wieman &  
W elsh, [16.257]). Can you see how these instructors' belief that students were responsible for their own difficulties may have caused them  
to overlook possible situational factors, such as teaching methods, to explain poor student performance? Clearly , we're dealing here with a  
common problem. Indeed, the bias toward personal, dispositional factors rather than external, situational factors in our explanations for  
others' behavior is so common that it is called the fundamental attribution error (F AE)(Hopthrow et al., [16.1 18]; Jouffre & Croizet,  
[16.135]; Ross, [16.208]).  
One reason for the F AE is that human personalities and behaviors are more salient or noticeable than situational factors. This saliency bias  
helps explain why people sometimes suggest that homeless people begging for money “should just go out and get a job”—a phenomenon  
also called “blaming the victim.” (See Figure16.2.)  
Figure 16.2 Attribution in  
actionDo you see how studying this  
text and taking your college  
psychology course enriches your  
study of the “real world”? Now you  
have a deeper understanding of the  
joke behind this cartoon, as well as  
a label to apply to it—the F AE.  
Unlike the F AE, which commonly occurs when we're explaining others' behaviors, the self-serving biasapplies to attributions  
(explanations) we make for our own behavior . In this case, we tend to favor internal (dispositional) attributions for our successes and  
external (situational) attributions for our failures. This bias is motivated by our desire to maintain positive self-esteem and a good public  
image (Kalish & Luria, [16.136]; Lilly & W ipawayangkool, [16.169]). As you may have observed, students often take personal credit for  
doing well on an exam. If they fail a test, however, they tend to blame the instructor , the textbook, or the “tricky” questions. Similarly , elite  
Olympic athletes more often attribute their wins to internal (personal) causes, such as their skill and effort, while attributing their losses to  
external (situational) causes, such as bad equipment or poor officiating (Aldridge & Islam, [16.2]; Mackinnon et al., [16.173]).  
How do we explain the discrepancy between the attributions we make for ourselves and those we make for others? According to the actor–  
observer effect(Jones & Nisbett, [16.134]), when examining our own behaviors, we are the actorsin the situation and know more about  
our own intentions and behaviors. It's therefore easier for us to see when situational factors come into play: “I didn't tip the waiter because  
I got really bad service.” In contrast, when explaining the behavior of others, we are observingthe actors and tend to blame the person,  
using an internal, personal attribution: “She didn't tip the waiter because she's cheap” (Figure16.3).  
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Figure 16.3 The actor–observer effectW e tend to explain our own behavior in terms of external  
factors (situational attributions) and others' behavior in terms of their internal characteristics  
(dispositional attributions).  
Culture and Attributional Biases  
Both the fundamental attribution error and the self-serving bias may depend in part on cultural factors (Hu et al., [16.119]; Kreitler &  
Dyson, [16.149]; Lakshman & Estay , [16.156]). In highly individualistic cultures, like the United States, people are defined and  
understood as individual selves, largely responsible for their own successes and failures. In contrast, people in collectivistic cultures, like  
China and Japan, are primarily defined as members of their social network, responsible for doing as others expect. Accordingly, they tend  
to be more aware of situational constraints on behavior, making the F AE less likely (Bond, [16.29]; Iselin et al., 2016; Tang et al.,  
[16.239]).  
The self-serving bias is also much less common in collectivistic cultures because self-esteem is related not to doing better than others but  
to fitting in with the group. In Japan, for instance, the ideal person is aware of his or her shortcomings and continually works to overcome  
them rather than thinking highly of himself or herself (Heine & Renshaw , [16.1 15]; Shand, [16.217]). For specific tips on reducing your  
own attributional biases, see the following discussion.  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessHow Can W e Reduce Attributional Biases?  
The key to making more accurate attributions begins with determining whether a given action stems mainly from personal factors or from  
the external situation. T o do this, it helps to ask yourself the following four questions:  
1.Is the behavior unique or shared by others? If a large, or increasing, number of people are engaging in the same behavior, such as  
rioting or homelessness, it's most likely the result of external, situational factors.  
2.Is the behavior stable or unstable? If someone's behavior is relatively enduring and permanent, it may be correct to make a personal,  
dispositional attribution. However, before giving up on a friend who is often quick-tempered and volatile, we may want to consider his  
or her entire body of personality traits. If he or she is also generous, kind, and incredibly devoted, we could overlook these  
imperfections.  
3.W as the cause of the behavior controllable or uncontrollable? Innocent victims of crime, like rape or robbery , are too often blamed  
for their misfortune because they were careless and lacked good judgment. They should not have “been in that part of town,” “walking  
alone,” and/or “dressed in expensive clothes.” Obviously , these are inaccurate and unfair personal attributions, as well as destructive  
examples of “blaming the victim.”  
4.What would I do in the same situation? Given our natural tendency toward self-serving biasesand the actor-observer effect,if we  
conclude that we would behave in the same way , the behavior is most likely the result of external, situational factors.  
If you're concerned that these four questions take too much time, just save them for significant events, such as when considering ending a  
relationship due to your friend's or romantic partner's behaviors. In addition, given our natural tendency to make internal, personal  
attributions, we can improve our judgments of others by simply erring in the opposite direction—looking first for external causes. This is  
simply “giving others the benefit of the doubt,” which is known to improve relationships, while also helping us avoid attributional errors.  
Attitudes  
The second major area of social cognition concerns the formation and changing of attitudes. When we observe and respond to the world  
around us, we are seldom completely neutral. Rather, our responses toward subjects as diverse as pizza, gun control, and the latest  
Academy A ward winning movie reflect our attitudes, which are learnedpredispositions to respond positively or negatively to a particular  
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object, person, or event. Social psychologists generally agree that most attitudes have three ABC components: affect(feelings), behavior  
(actions), and cognitions(thoughts and beliefs) (Figure16.4).  
Figure 16.4 The ABCsof attitudesWhen social psychologists study attitudes, they measure each of the three ABC  
components: affect, behavior , and cognitions.  
Attitude Formation  
As mentioned, we tend to learn our attitudes, and this learning generally occurs through direct instruction, personal experience, or  
watching others. In some cases, these sources may differ , depending on our gender . For example, researchers have found that teenage boys  
are more likely to learn sexual attitudes from media representations of sexual behavior, whereas teenage girls tend to learn their sexual  
attitudes from their mothers, as long as they feel close to their mothers (V andenbosch & Eggermont, [16.247]).  
Attitude Change  
Although attitudes begin to form in early childhood, they're obviously not permanent, a fact that advertisers and politicians know and  
exploit. As shown in Figure16.5, experiments have shown that even changing the photos in ads can change attitudes. However, a much  
more common method is to make direct, persuasive appeals, such as in ads that say, “Friends Don't Let Friends Drive Drunk!”  
Figure 16.5 Using photos to change attitudesConsidering the  
high prevalence of very thin women and lean, “ripped” men  
displayed in magazines, on TV , and in movies, it's easy to see  
why many people in our W estern culture develop a shared  
preference for a certain, limited body type. Thankfully , research  
finds that just showing women photographs of plus-size models  
(with a minimum clothing size of 16 and a BMI between 36 and  
42) caused them to change their initial attitudes, which had been  
to prefer the thin ideal (Boothroyd et al., [16.31]). Can you see  
how ads that offer more realistic images (like the photo on the  
left), as well as the devastating effects of anorexia (like the  
photo on the right), might improve the overall health and selfimage of both men and women? Sadly , the model in the photo  
on the right, Isabelle Caro, died of anorexia in 2010 at age 28.  
Cognitive Dissonance  
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Surprisingly , psychologists have identified an even more efficient strategy than persuasion. The strongest personal change comes when we  
notice contradictions between our thoughts, feelings, and actions—the three components of all attitudes. Such contradictions typically lead  
to a state of unpleasant psychological tension, known as cognitive dissonance. According to Leon Festinger's ([16.81]) cognitive disonance  
theory, we all share a strong need for consistency among our thoughts, feelings, and actions, and when we notice inconsistencies we  
experience unpleasant feelings of psychological tension, known as “dissonance.”  
T o relieve this discomfort, we are highly motivated to change one or more of the three ABC components of our attitudes. For instance, a  
young woman who is engaged to be married might notice a feeling of attraction to someone other than her intended spouse and then might  
experience unpleasant tension from the contradiction (cognitive dissonance) between her feelings of attraction and her belief that she  
should be attracted only to her husband-to-be. T o relieve the discomfort, she could break off the engagement or , more appropriately ,  
change her beliefs to include the idea that feelings of attraction to others is normal and to be expected both before and after marriage.  
A clever experiment focusing on the discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance found that taking a simple painkiller, acetaminophen,  
reduced the amount of attitude change among participants required to perform a potentially dissonance-producing task (DeW all et al.,  
[16.66]). The acetominophen reduced overall pain, including the pain caused by cognitive dissonance. As a result, participants who took  
the painkiller were less motivated to change their attitudes than participants who took placebos!  
Upon hearing about this study , one of our clever students declared that he now understands why everyone likes parties with lots of alcohol.  
Like the acetominophen, alcohol reduces the pain caused by the cognitive dissonance associated with sex in a casual, hookup environment.  
What do you think? Do you agree?  
Given that cognitive dissonance is often an effective approach to attitude change in all our lives, it's important to fully understand it. Let's  
closely examine the classic study by Leon Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith ([16.82]). These experimenters asked college students to  
perform several very boring tasks, such as turning wooden pegs or sorting spools into trays. They were then paid either $1 or $20 to lie to  
newresearch participants by telling them that the boring tasks were actually very enjoyable. Surprisingly, those who were paid just $1 to  
lie subsequently changed their minds about the task, and actually reported more positive attitudes toward it, than those who were paid $20.  
Why was there more attitude change among those who were paid only $1? All participants who lied to other participants presumably  
recognized the discrepancy between their initial beliefs and feelings (the task was boring) and their behavior (telling others it was fun).  
However, as you can see in Figure16.6, the participants who were given insufficient monetary justification for lying (the $1 liars)  
apparently experienced greater cognitive dissonance. Therefore, to reduce their discomfort, they expressed more liking for the dull task.  
By comparison, those who received sufficient monetary justification (the $20 liars) had little or no motivation to change their attitude—  
they lied for the money! (Note that in 1959, when the experiment was conducted, $20 would have been the economic equivalent of about  
$200 today .)  
Figure 16.6 Why cheap lies hurt moreNote how lying for $20 creates  
less cognitive dissonance and less attitude change than lying for $1.  
Do you see the potential danger in how easily some participants in this classic study changed their thoughts and feelings about the boring  
task in order to match their behavior? Consider how cognitive dissonance might help explain why military leaders keep sending troops to a  
seemingly endless war . They obviously can't change the actions that led to the initial loss of lives, so they may reduce their cognitive  
dissonance by becoming even more committed to a belief that the war is justified. Given the importance of this theory to your everyday  
life, be sure to carefully study Step-by-Step Diagram16.1.  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 16.1 Understanding Cognitive Dissonance  
This Step-by-Step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and  
exams. Be sure to study it CAREFULL Y!  
W e've all noticed that people often say one thing, but do another. For example, why do some health professionals, who obviously know the  
dangers of smoking, continue to smoke?  
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Culture and Cognitive Dissonance  
The experience of cognitive dissonance may depend on a distinctly W estern way of thinking about and evaluating the self. As we  
mentioned earlier, people in Eastern cultures tend not to define themselves in terms of their individual accomplishments. For this reason,  
making a bad decision may not pose the same threat to self-esteem that it would in more individualistic cultures, such as the United States  
(Frazer et al., [16.88]; Kokkoris & Kühnen, [16.145]; Na & Chan, [16.187]).  
Prejudice  
Prejudice, which literally means prejudgment, is a learned, unjustified negative attitude toward members of a particular group. Like all  
other attitudes, it's composed of three ABC elements: affect(emotions about the group), behavior(discrimination—an unjustifiable,  
negative action directed toward members of a group), and cognitions(stereotypes—overgeneralized beliefs about members of a group).  
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When we use the term prejudicehere, we are referring to all three of these components. Note, though, that in everyday usage, prejudice  
often refers primarily to thoughts and feelings, while discriminationis used to describe actions. When the terms are used in this way , they  
do not overlap completely , as shown in Figure16.7.  
Figure 16.7 Prejudice versus discriminationPrejudice and  
discrimination are closely related, but either condition can exist without  
the other . The only situation without prejudice or discrimination in this  
example occurs when a person of color is given a job simply because he  
or she is the best candidate.  
Common Sources of Prejudice  
How does prejudice originate? Five commonly cited sources are learning, limited r esour ces, displaced aggression, mental shortcuts, and  
implicit biases(Figure16.8).  
Figure 16.8 Which source best  
explains your own prejudices?  
1.Learning People learn prejudice the same way they learn other attitudes—primarily through classical conditioningand observational  
learning(Chapter 6). For example, a form of classical conditioning and observational learning occurs after repeated exposure to  
negative, stereotypical portrayals of people of color and women in movies, magazines, TV , and the Internet. This type of repeated  
pairing of negative images with particular groups of people builds viewers' prejudice against those groups (Brown et al., [16.42];  
Killen et al., [16.141]; Sigalow & Fox, [16.224]). Similarly, hearing parents, friends, and public figures express their prejudices creates  
and reinforces prejudice (Koike et al., [16.144]; Miklikowska, [16.180]). Ethnocentrism, believing our own culture represents the norm  
or is superior to others, is another form of a classically conditioned or observationally learned prejudice.  
W e also develop prejudice through operant conditioning. As a case in point, when people make prejudicial remarks or “jokes,” they  
often gain attention and even approval from others. Sadly , denigrating others is also reinforcing because it boosts group cohesion  
among the initiators, while simultaneously fostering a negative disposition toward the targeted group (Fein & Spencer, [16.78]; Ford,  
[16.85]; Ho & O'Donohoe, [16.1 16]). Furthermore, once someone has one or more negative interactions or experiences with members  
of a specific group, he or she may generalize the resulting bad feelings and prejudice to all members of that group.  
2.Limited resources A second source of prejudice is that when resources are limited, prejudice pays off! Most of us understand that  
prejudice and discrimination exact a high price on their victims, but few appreciate the significant economic and political advantages  
they offer to the dominant group (Bonilla-Silva, [16.30]; Dreu et al., [16.71]; Wilkins et al., [16.258]). The stereotype that people of  
color are inferior to Whites, for example, helps justify and perpetuate a social order in the United States in which White Americans  
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hold disproportionate power and resources. Can you see why it's critical to recognize the power and economic advantages of prejudice  
for the dominant group? One of the core beliefs in psychology is that behavior does not persist if it's not reinforced.  
3.Displaced aggression As a child, did you ever feel like hitting a sibling who was tormenting you? Frustration sometimes leads people  
to attack the perceived cause of that frustration. But, as history has shown, when the source is ambiguous, or too powerful and capable  
of retaliation, people often redirect their aggression toward an alternate, innocent target, known as a scapegoat (Gangloff et al., [16.90];  
Ralph et al., [16.202]; Shigemura & Chhem, [16.222]). Blacks, Jews, Native Americans, and other less empowered groups have a long  
and tragic history of being scapegoated. Examples include blaming gay men in the 1980s for the AIDS epidemic or attributing the  
housing and banking collapse of 2008 to people of color or members of the working class for buying houses they could not afford.  
Similarly , some politicians campaigning for the U.S. presidential nomination in 2016 used immigrant, ethnic, and religious groups as  
scapegoats for the nation's problems (Figure16.9).  
Figure 16.9 Prejudice and  
immigrationCan you identify  
which of the four sources of  
prejudice best explains this  
behavior?  
4.Mental shortcuts The fourth source of prejudice comes from everyday mental shortcutsthat we create to simplify our complex social  
world (McFarlane, [16.176]; Prati et al., [16.199]). Stereotypes allow us to make quick, helpful judgments about others, thereby freeing  
up mental resources for other activities. However, they also can lead to unforeseen negative outcomes. For instance, people use  
stereotypes as mental shortcuts when they create ingroups and outgroups. An ingr oupis any category to which people see themselves  
as belonging; an outgroupis any other category .  
Research finds that ingroup members judge themselves more positively (as being more attractive, having better personalities, and being  
more deserving of resources) compared with outgroup members—a phenomenon known as ingroup favoritism(Hughes et al.,  
[16.120]; W ilkins et al., [16.259]; Y u et al., [16.264]). Members of the ingroup also tend to judge members of the outgroup as more  
alike and less diverse than members of their own group, a phenomenon aptly known as the outgroup homogeneity effect(Brewer ,  
[16.35]; Kenny et al., [16.140]; Ratner & Amodio, [16.203]). One of the many dangers of this erroneous belief is that when members  
of specific groups are not recognized as varied and complex individuals, it's easier to treat them in discriminatory ways.  
A sad example of the outgroup homogeneity effect occurs during wars and international conflicts. V iewing people on the other side as  
simply faceless enemies makes it easier to kill large numbers of soldiers and civilians. This type of dehumanization and facelessness is  
almost always the first step toward justifying violence against others (Greenwald & Pettigrew, [16.101]; Haslam, [16.109]; Lee et al.,  
[16.166]).  
5.Implicit biases Some believe that, like all attitudes, prejudice can operate even without a person's conscious awareness or control—a  
process known as automatic bias, or implicit bias(Hagiwara et al., [16.106]; Kubota & Phelps, [16.150]; Schmid & Amodio, [16.212]).  
As you recall from Chapter 8, we naturally put things into groups or categories to help us make sense of the world around us.  
Unfortunately , the prototypes and hierarchies we develop are sometimes based on incorrect stereotypes of various groups that later lead  
to implicit biases.  
For example, researchers in one observational study found that Uber and Lyft drivers took longer to accept ride requests from Black  
travelers than from White travelers, that women were more often taken on significantly longer rides than men, and that taxis were  
significantly more likely to drive past Black travelers than White travelers (Ge et al., [16.92]). Similarly, consumers more often choose  
a company or a product based on a message read in a standard American English accent than either a Mandarin Chinese or a French  
accent (Livingston et al., [16.172]).  
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In addition, a 2015 study (Lavy & Sand) found that teachers grade boys higher than girls (when names are known) on math tests, even  
when the girls outscore the boys when the tests are graded anonymously. Unfortunately , these teachers are underestimating girls' ability  
in math and overestimating boys' ability . Comparable gender differences aren't seen for tests in other subjects, such as English and  
foreign languages. Finally , a study of NFL games found that Black quarterbacks are more likely to be benched after making a mistake  
than White quarterbacks (V olz, [16.252]).  
How do we identify our hidden, implicit biases? A common method is the Implicit Association T est (IAT). Y ou can test yourself by  
going to https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit.  
I'm going to assume I'm a racist when I'm talking about a race that isn't mine because I don't know what that experience is like .  
—Stephen Colbert (American Comedian, TV Host, Author)  
The Price of Prejudice  
Before going on, it's important to note several tragic examples of our long, sad global history of prejudice (Figure16.10). The atrocities  
committed against the Jews and other groups during the Holocaust, as well as the current crises in the Middle East and Africa, offer stark  
reminders of the cost of human hatred. Within the United States, our history of slavery; the current racial and gender disparities in  
employment, wealth, education, and health care; the current immigration controversy; and the stigma associated with mental illness  
(Chapters 14 and 15) all provide troubling evidence of the ongoing costs of prejudice (Glaser, [16.96]; Koike et al., [16.144]; Saridi et al.,  
[16.210]).  
Figure 16.10 The high price of prejudiceIf pictures truly are “worth a thousand words,” these photos speak volumes about  
the atrocities associated with prejudice: (a) the Holocaust, when millions of Jews, as well as members of other groups, were  
exterminated by the Nazis, (b) slavery in the United States, where millions of Africans were bought and sold as slaves, and  
(c) the 2016 nightclub shooting in Orlando, Florida, which left 49 people dead and 53 wounded and serves as a painful  
reminder of the ongoing dangers members of the LGBT community still face in modern America.  
Reducing Prejudice  
What can we do to reduce and combat prejudice and discrimination? Five major approaches have been suggested: cooperation with  
common goals, inter group contact, cognitive retraining, cognitive dissonance, and empathy induction(Figure16.11).  
Figure 16.11 How can we reduce  
prejudice?On February 5, 2017, one  
man noticed some Nazi graffiti on  
the New Y ork City subway and  
asked if anyone had any hand  
sanitizer to remove it. V irtually  
everyone in the train car joined in  
the removal effort (Bromwich,  
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[16.39]). Do you recognize how the  
five approaches to combating  
prejudice are at work in this  
situation? Similarly , how might large  
changes in social policy , such as  
school busing, integrated housing,  
and increased civil rights legislation,  
gradually change attitudes and  
eventually lead to decreased  
prejudice and discrimination?  
1.Cooperation with common goals Research shows that one of the best ways to combat prejudice and discrimination is to encourage  
cooperationrather than competition(Kuchenbrandt et al., [16.151]; Price et al., [16.201]). Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues ([16.220],  
[16.221]) conducted an ingenious study to show the role of competition in promoting prejudice. The researchers artificially created  
strong feelings of ingroup and outgroup identification in a group of 11- and 12-year-old boys at a summer camp. They did this by  
physically separating the boys into different cabins and assigning different projects to each group, such as building a diving board or  
cooking out in the woods.  
Once each group developed strong feelings of group identity and allegiance, the researchers set up a series of competitive games,  
including tug-of-war and touch football. They awarded desirable prizes to the winning teams. Because of this treatment, the groups  
began to pick fights, call each other names, and raid each other's camps. Researchers pointed to these behaviors as evidence of the  
experimentally produced prejudice.  
The good news is that after using competition to create prejudice between the two groups, the researchers created “mini-crises” and  
tasks that required expertise, labor , and cooperation from both groups. Prizes were awarded to all, and prejudice between the groups  
slowly began to dissipate. By the end of the camp, the earlier hostilities and ingr oup favoritismhad vanished. Sherif's study showed not  
only the importance of cooperation as opposed to competition but also the importance of super ordinate goals(the “mini-crises”) in  
reducing prejudice. Modern research agrees with Sherif's findings regarding the value of cooperation and common goals (Rutland &  
Killen, [16.141]; Sierksma et al., [16.223]; Zhang, [16.266]).  
2.Intergroup contact A second approach to reducing prejudice is to increase contact and positive experiences between groups (Dickter  
et al., [16.68]; V edder et al., [16.250]). Surprisingly , even just imagined contact with other groups can reduce prejudice (W est et al.,  
[16.255]). However , as you just discovered with Sherif's study of the boys at the summer camp, contact can sometimes increase  
prejudice. Increasing contact works best under certain conditions that provide for close interaction, inter dependence(superordinate  
goals that require cooperation), and equal status.  
3.Cognitive retraining Even in modern times movies, television, and commercials still tend to emphasize gender differences—young  
boys are typically portrayed playing sports or computer games, whereas girls are more often shown putting on makeup or playing with  
dolls. Do you see how these repeated portrayals might increase and perpetuate gender stereotypes? Cognitive retraining can help  
reduce this effect. Researchers in one study played specific tones while participants viewed counter-stereotypes, such as the word  
“math” paired with a female face (Hu et al., [16.122]). Then, while the participants took a 90-minute nap, the researchers played the  
tones again to remind participants of these new pairings. This simple exercise led to lower rates of racial and sexual prejudice that  
lasted at least a week.  
W e can also use cognitive retraining to reduce prejudice by encouraging people to selectively pay attention to similaritiesrather than  
differencesbetween individuals and groups (Gaertner & Dovidio, [16.89]; Phillips & Ziller, [16.198]; W est et al., [16.256]). Can you  
imagine what might happen if we didn't divide people into groups, such as people of color versus White (colorless?), Christian versus  
Muslim, or men versus women?  
In fact, one assumption behind cognitive retraining, known as racial colorblindness, suggests that we should simply ignore racial and  
ethnic differences. In other words, just treat everyone as an individual. But others believe avoiding or ignoring racial/ethnic categories  
discounts serious inequalities and thereby preserves the status quo (Babbitt et al., [16.15]; Bonilla-Silva, [16.30]). What do you think?  
4.Cognitive dissonance As you may recall from the section on attitudes, one of the most efficient methods to change an attitude is with  
cognitive dissonance, and prejudice is an attitude.  
Each time we meet someone who does not conform to our prejudiced views, we experience dissonance—“I thought all gay men were  
effeminate. This guy is a deep-voiced professional athlete. I'm confused.” T o resolve the dissonance, we can maintain our stereotypes  
by saying, “This gay man is an exception to the rule.” However, if we continue our contact with a large variety of gay men, or when  
the media portray numerous instances of nonstereotypical gay individuals, this “exception to the rule” defense eventually breaks down,  
the need for cognitive consistency rises, and attitude change (prejudice reduction) is likely to happen (Armstrong et al., [16.8];  
Gawronski et al., [16.91]; Papageorgiou, [16.194]). See Figure16.12.  
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Figure 16.12 Breaking the  
“Gay barrier”Michael Sam  
(pictured here accepting the  
Arthur Ashe Courage A ward)  
became the first openly gay  
National Football League  
draftee in 2014. In 2015, Sam  
signed a two-year contract  
with the Montreal Alouettes  
of the Canadian Football  
League—the first openly gay  
player in the CFL's history .  
5.Empathy induction W e've saved the best for last! V ery surprising—and very encouraging—research has shown that we can  
successfully reduce prejudice by simply taking another's perspective—as demonstrated in the following Research Challenge (Boag &  
Carnelley , [16.27]; Broockman & Kalla, [16.40]; Miklikowska, [16.180]). This type of empathy inductionis further promoted by  
televised specials and Hollywood movies, like 42and Selma,that help us understand and sympathize with the heroic struggles of  
Blacks to gain equal rights. Surprisingly, even just reading Harry Potterbooks appears to make people more tolerant. A clever study  
found that high school students who had read more books in the Harry Potterseries had more positive feelings toward gay people and  
showed lower levels of prejudice toward immigrants (V ezzali et al., [16.251]).  
Research Challenge Can a 10-Minute Conversation Reduce Prejudice?  
As we all know , advertising campaigns rarely , if ever , persuade people to change their attitudes—especially on sensitive topics like politics  
or prejudice. Even talking directly to people generally has little effect. However , a recent study found one method of persuasion that  
worked.  
The researchers sent letters to 35,550 homes in the Miami area asking individuals to participate in a study for a small reward, which  
resulted in 1,825 volunteer participants (Broockman & Kalla, [16.40]). The researchers then sent 56 canvassers—some transgender, others  
not—to knock on the doors of 501 of these participants to have a 10-minute conversation. Half of the canvassers talked about being  
transgender . The other canvassers talked about recycling. In both cases, participants completed a survey before and after the conversation  
to measure their attitudes regarding transgender people. The effects were really remarkable. A 10-minute conversation with a random  
stranger led to decreases in transphobiagreater than Americans' average decrease in homophobia from 1998 to 2012! And these effects  
lasted at least 3 months. Surprisingly , it didn't matter whether the interviewer was transgender or not.  
What did matter, and why these researchers succeeded where most others have failed, is that they trained the canvassers in a new technique  
called “deep canvassing.” Rather than just presenting facts and talking “to” someone, the canvassers asked participants to recall and  
discuss their own personal experiences with judgment or prejudice. Afterward, they were encouraged to think about how their story related  
to those of transgender people. In short, this deep-canvassing technique is another form of empathy induction—encouraging active  
perspective taking—which, in turn, leads to reduced prejudice.  
Can you see why this research has been widely cited in scientific journals and the mass media as being “groundbreaking” and  
“monumentally important”? And why it may lead to a new field of research on prejudice reduction (Bohannon, [16.28]; Resnick,  
[16.206])? It's because deeply held attitudes like prejudice are notoriously difficult to change. And if this method can work on something  
like transphobia, it might also be used to change public opinion about gay marriage, climate change, immigration, and other significant  
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topics. How can you use this in your own life if you want to change your own or others' attitudes? The first step is to recall a similar  
personal experience and the accompanying painful emotions and reactions. Then encourage yourself and others to try to imagine the  
suffering of another group—such as that of gay and transgender people. As we've noted throughout this text, empathy, placing ourselves in  
the shoes of another , is key to better social relations in almost all parts of life.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Broockman & Kalla, [16.40]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental  
research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned  
to groups, list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elational, answer the corresponding questions for both.  
Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks  
and public reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you  
become a better critical thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Psychology and Y our Professional SuccessThe Power of Affirmative Action  
In Chapter 17 (Industrial/Organizational Psychology), an optional chapter that accompanies this text, we discuss how job satisfaction is  
one of the greatest boosts to overall employee productivity. W e also point out that employee turnover and absenteeism are two of the  
largest expenses for business owners. A recent report suggests that it costs approximately $8,000 to replace a $40,000 manager and about  
$213,000 to replace a $100,000 executive (Center for Nonprofit Management, [16.56]). Given that employees who experience prejudice in  
the workplace are less likely to be satisfied at work, and more likely to leave and/or miss work, it makes simple economic sense that  
prejudice costs money and that reducing prejudice will benefit both the employee and employer (Burns, [16.45]; Hebl et al., [16.113]).  
On a higher moral ground, our entire society benefits if every person is given an equal opportunity to succeed. Consider our famous figure  
for this chapter , Justice Sonia Sotomayor . Despite being born to immigrant parents and an alcoholic father and being raised in a public  
housing project, she attended two of our nation's finest universities—thanks to affirmative action! Sotomayor proudly states: “I am the  
perfect affirmative action baby . My test scores were not comparable to my colleagues at Princeton and Y ale…[but] I came to accept during  
my freshman year that many of the gaps in my knowledge and understanding were simply limits of class and cultural background, not lack  
of aptitude or application as I'd feared.” She has noted on several occasions that the central purpose of affirmative action was “to create  
conditions whereby students from disadvantaged backgrounds could be brought to the starting line of a race many were unaware was even  
being run” (Sotomayor, [16.226], p. 135). Can you see how this response also addresses the unfortunate belief that “disadvantaged people  
just make bad choices”? As Justice Sotomayor might say , people can't make choices they don't even know they have.  
Retrieval Practice 16.1 Social Cognition  
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Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in  
Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Discuss how prejudice relates to discrimination.  
2\.   
The two major attribution mistakes we make are the ________and the ________.  
a. fundamental attribution error; self-serving bias  
b. situational attribution; dispositional attribution  
c. actor bias; observer bias  
d. stereotype; bias  
3\.   
Label the three components of attitudes.  
4\.   
________is the cognitive component of prejudice.  
a. Harassment  
b. A stereotype  
c. Discrimination  
d. Any of these options  
5\.   
Which of the following is an example of the outgroup homogeneity effect?  
a. “Y ou're not one of us.”  
b. “W e are all alike.”  
c. “Y ou can't tell those people apart.”  
d. All of these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
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Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of  
psychology and chapters within this text.  
Although this is the final chapter in the textbook, you may still look ahead to applying the concepts from this class to your future  
coursework, career, and personal life. In this chapter , you learned about attributions and how we explain the causes of behavior or events.  
What behavioral changes have you made (or do you plan to make) that you would attribute to having taken this course in psychology?  
.  
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16.2 Social Influence  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Review the main types of social influence.  
•Definesocial influence.  
•Discussconformity and the factors that contribute to it.  
•Describeobedience and the situational factors that increase it.  
•Explainhow group membership affects our behaviors and decision making.  
In the previous section, we explored the way we think about and interpret ourselves and others through social cognition. W e now focus on social  
influence: how situational factors and other people affect us. In this section, we explore three major topics—conformity, obedience, and group  
processes.  
Conformity  
Imagine that you have volunteered for a psychology experiment on visual perception. All participants are shown two cards. The first card has only  
a single vertical line on it, while the second card has three vertical lines of varying lengths. Y our task is to determine which of the three lines on  
the second card (marked A, B, or C) is the same length as the single line on the first card (marked X).  
Y ou are seated around a table with six other people, and everyone is called on in order. Because you are seated to the left of the seventh  
participant, you are always next to last to provide your answers. On the first two trials, everyone agrees on the correct line. However, on the third  
trial, your group is shown two cards like those in Figure16.13. The first participant chooses line A as the closest in length to line X, an obviously  
wrong answer! When the second, third, fourth, and fifth participants also say line A, you really start to wonder: “What's going on here? Are they  
wrong, or am I?”  
Figure 16.13 Solomon  
Asch's study of  
conformityWhich line (A,  
B, or C) is most like line X?  
Could anyone convince you  
otherwise?  
What do you think you would do at this point in the experiment? Would you stick with your convictions and say line B, regardless of what the  
others have answered? Or would you go along with the group? What you don't know is that the other six participants are actually confederatesof  
the experimenter (that is, they're working with the experimenter and purposely giving wrong answers). Their incorrect responses were designed to  
test your degree of conformity, which is defined as a change in thoughts, feelings, or actions because of real or imagined group pressure.  
In the original version of this experiment, conducted by Solomon Asch, more than one-third of the participants conformed and agreed with the  
group's obviously incorrect choice (Asch, [16.11]). (Participants in a control group experienced no group pressure and almost always chose  
correctly .) Asch's study has been conducted in at least 17 countries, and the amount of conformity has varied depending on factors such as age and  
personality (Mori et al., [16.185]; T ennen et al., [16.240]; Trautmann-Lengsfeld & Hermann, [16.243]). Using a research design similar to Asch's,  
researchers found that some participants were even willing to adjust their moral decisions when faced with social pressure (Kundu & Cummins,  
[16.152]).  
Why are we so likely to conform? To the onlooker, conformity is often difficult to understand. Even the conformer sometimes has a hard time  
explaining his or her behavior . Let's look at three factors that drive conformity:  
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•Normative social influence Have you ever asked what others are wearing to a party, or copied your neighbor at a dinner party to make sure  
you picked up the right fork? One of the first reasons we conform is that we want to go along with group norms, which are expected behaviors  
generally adhered to by members of a group. For example, a recent study of T witter found that tweeters are more likely to share a tweet if it  
already has a high number of retweets (Lee & Oh, [16.165]).  
W e usually submit to this type of normative social influenceout of our need for approval and acceptance by the group (Feeney et al., [16.76];  
Shang et al., [16.218]). Conforming to group norms makes us feel good, and it's often more adaptive to conform. However, on some occasions,  
this type of conformity can be harmful. One study found that normative social influence was a strong predictor of the intention to use tanning  
beds despite clear evidence that they're associated with increased risk of skin cancer (Carcioppolo et al., [16.54]; McWhirter & HoffmanGoetz, [16.178]). (For an interesting example of everyday cultural norms, see the following Gender and Cultural Diversity.)  
Gender and Cultural Diversity How Does Culture Affect Personal Space?  
Culture and socialization have a lot to do with shaping norms for personal space. If someone invades the invisible “personal bubble” around  
our bodies, we generally feel very uncomfortable. This may help explain why some people from the United States feel awkward when  
traveling to Mediterranean and Latin American countries where people generally maintain smaller interpersonal distances (Axtell, [16.13];  
Fadel & Garcia-Navarro, [16.74]). As you can see in this photo, these Middle Eastern men are apparently comfortable with a small personal  
space and with showing male-to-male affection.  
Children in our own W estern culture also tend to stand very close to others until they are socialized to recognize and maintain greater personal  
distance. Furthermore, friends stand closer than strangers, women tend to stand closer than men, individuals with autism spectrum disorder  
tend to have a smaller personal space than others, and violent prisoners prefer approximately three times as much personal space as nonviolent  
prisoners (Andersen, [16.5]; Asada et al., [16.10]; Iachini et al., [16.123]).  
If you'd like to experience the W estern culture's norm for personal space, try this informal norm violationexercise. Approach a fellow student  
on campus and ask for directions to the bookstore, library , or some other landmark. As you are talking, move toward the person until you  
invade his or her personal space. Y ou should be close enough to almost touch toes. How does the person respond? How do you feel? Now  
repeat the process with another student. This time try standing 5 to 6 feet away while asking directions. Which procedure was most dif ficult  
for you? Most people think this will be a fun assignment. However, they often find it extremely difficult to willingly break unwritten cultural  
norms for personal space.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
How might cultural differences in personal space help explain why U.S. travelers abroad are sometimes seen as being “too loud and brassy”?  
2\.   
Given that men and women have different norms for personal space, what effect might this have on their relationships?  
•Informational social influence Have you ever bought a product simply because of a friend's recommendation? In this case, you probably  
conformed not to gain your friend's approval, an example of normative social influence, but because you assumed that he or she had more  
information than you did, a case of informational social influence. Given that participants in Asch's experiment observed all the other  
participants giving unanimous decisions on the length of the lines, can you see how they may have conformed because they believed the others  
had more information than they did?  
•Reference groups The third major factor in conformity is the power of reference groups—the people we most admire, like, and want to  
resemble. Attractive actors and popular sports stars are paid millions of dollars to endorse products because advertisers know that we want to  
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be as cool as LeBron James or as beautiful as Natalie Portman (Arsena et al., [16.9]; Isacco & W ade, [16.124]; Schulz, [16.214]). Of course,  
we also have more important reference groups in our lives—parents, friends, family members, teachers, religious leaders, and classmates—all  
of whom affect our willingness to conform.  
Interestingly , research shows that specific people (called “social referents”) can have an outsized influence over others' attitudes and behaviors.  
One study found that by encouraging a small set of popular high school students to take a public stance against typical forms of conflict, such  
as bullying, overall levels of conflict were reduced by an estimated 30% (Paluck et al., [16.192]). Similarly, popular high school students'  
attitudes about alcohol use have been shown to have a substantial influence on alcohol consumption by other students in their school  
(T eunissen et al., [16.241]). Surprisingly , popular peers who had negativeattitudes toward alcohol use were even more influential in  
determining rates of teenage drinking than those with positive attitudes!  
Obedience  
As we've seen, conformity means going along with the group. A second form of social influence, obedience, involves going along with direct  
commands, usually from someone in a position of authority . From very early childhood, we're socialized to respect and obey our parents, teachers,  
and other authority figures.  
Conformity and obedience aren't always bad (Figure16.14). In fact, we conform and obey most of the time because it's in our own best interests  
(and everyone else's) to do so. Like most people, we stand in line at a movie theatre instead of pushing ahead of others. This allows an orderly  
purchasing of tickets. Conformity and obedience allow social life to proceed with safety, order , and predictability .  
Figure 16.14 When is it good to conform and  
obey?These people willingly obey the  
firefighters who order them to evacuate a  
building, and many lives are saved. What  
would happen to our everyday functioning if  
most people did not go along with the crowd or  
generally did not obey orders?  
However, on some occasions, it is important not to conform or obey . W e don't want teenagers (or adults) engaging in risky sex or drug use just to  
be part of the crowd. And we don't want soldiers (or anyone else) mindlessly following orders just because they were told to do so by an authority  
figure. Recognizing and resisting destructive forms of obedience are essential to our society—and to social psychology. Let's start with an  
examination of a classic series of studies on obedience by Stanley Milgram ([16.182], [16.183]).  
Imagine that you have r esponded to a newspaper ad seeking volunteers for a study on memory. At the Y ale University laboratory , an experimenter  
explains to you and another participant that he is studying the effects of punishment on learning and memory. Y ou are selected to play the role of  
the “teacher .” The experimenter leads you into a r oom, where he straps the other participant—the “learner”—into a chair . He applies electr ode  
paste to the learner's wrist “to avoid blisters and burns” and attaches an electrode that is connected to a shock generator.  
Next, you're led into an adjacent room and told to sit in front of this same shock generator , which is wir ed thr ough the wall to the chair of the  
learner. (The setup for the experiment is illustrated in Figure16.15.) The shock machine consists of 30 switches repr esenting successively higher  
levels of shock, from 15 volts to 450 volts. W ritten labels appear below each group of switches, ranging from “Slight Shock” to “Danger: Severe  
Shock,” all the way to “XXX.” The experimenter explains that it is your job to teach the learner a list of word pairs and to punish any errors by  
administering a shock. W ith each wr ong answer , you ar e to increase the shock by one level.  
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Figure 16.15 Milgram's study on obedienceUnder orders from an experimenter, would  
you, as “teacher,” use this shock generator to shock a man (the “learner”) who is  
screaming and begging to be released? Few people believe they would, but research  
shows otherwise.  
Y ou begin teaching the word pairs, but the learner's responses are often wrong. Before long, you are inflicting shocks that you can only assume  
must be extremely painful. After you administer 150 volts, the learner begins to protest: “Get me out of here… I r efuse to go on.”  
Y ou hesitate, and the experimenter tells you to continue. He insists that even if the learner refuses to answer , you must keep incr easing the shock  
levels. But the other person is obviously in pain. What will you do?  
The psychologist who designed this study , Stanley Milgram, was actually investigating not punishment and learning but obedience to authority:  
W ould participants obey the experimenter's prompts and commands to shock another human being? In Milgram's public survey, fewer than 25%  
thought they would go beyond 150 volts. And no respondents predicted that they would go past the 300-volt level. Y et 65% of the teacherparticipants in this series of studies obeyed completely—going all the way to the end of the scale (450 volts), even beyond the point when the  
“learner” (Milgram's confederate) stopped responding altogether.  
Even Milgram was surprised by his results. Before the study began, he polled a group of psychiatrists, and they predicted that most people would  
refuse to go beyond 150 volts and that fewer than 1% of those tested would “go all the way .” But, as Milgram discovered, 65% of his participants  
—men and women of all ages and from all walks of life—administered the highest voltage. V ersions of Milgram's study have been partially  
replicated many times and in many countries (Dambrun & V alentiné, [16.60]; Doliński et al., [16.70]; Haslam et al., [16.110]). For example, a  
recent replication in Poland, with only slight modifications to improve the ethics of the procedure, found that 90% of people were willing to  
deliver the highest level of shock (Doliński et al., [16.70]). The participants were also quite willing to shock women serving as learners—although  
at somewhat lower rates than when men were the learners.  
Note that this research has been heavily criticized, and Milgram's full original setup could never be undertaken today due to ethical and moral  
considerations (Baumrind, [16.23]; Gibson, [16.95]; Griggs, [16.103]). Deception is a necessary part of some research, but the degree of it in  
Milgram's research and the discomfort of the participants would never be allowed under today's research standards. Follow-up studies have also  
revealed that Milgram did not adequately debrief some participants and did not use a standard procedure for all participants—two research  
requirements discussed in Chapter 1. These findings raise serious concerns about the validity of Milgram's findings and the ethical treatment of his  
participants.  
One final reminder: The “learner” was an accomplice of the experimenter and only pretended to be shocked. Milgram provided specific scripts  
that the “learners” followed at every stage of the experiment. In contrast, the “teachers” were true volunteers who believed they were  
administering real shocks. Although they suffered and protested, in the final analysis, most still obeyed.  
Understanding Destructive Obedience  
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Why did the teachers in Milgram's study obey the orders to shock a fellow participant, despite their moral objections? Are there specific  
circumstances that increase or decrease obedience? In a series of follow-up studies, Milgram found several key factors that influenced obedience:  
legitimacy and closeness of the authority figure, r emoteness of the victim, assignment of responsibility, and modeling or imitation of others. See  
Figure16.16. In addition to these four factors, researchers have discovered other deciding factors in obedience, including the following:  
•Socialization Can you see how socialization might help explain many instances of mindless and sometimes destructive obedience? From an  
early age, we're all taught to listen to and respect people in positions of authority. In this case, participants in Milgram's study came into the  
research lab with a lifetime of socialization toward the value of scientific research and respect for the experimenter's authority. They couldn't  
suddenly step outside themselves and question the morality of this particular experimenter and his orders.  
•The foot-in-the-door technique The step-wise actions in many obedience situations may help explain why so many people were willing to  
give the maximum shock in Milgram's study . The initial mild level of shock may have worked as a foot-in-the-door technique, in which a first,  
small request is used to set up later, larger requests. Once Milgram's participants complied with the initial request, they might have felt  
obligated to continue.  
•Adherence to ideologies Some film critics and political commentators have suggested that popular movies like American Sniper ,with their  
heavy emphasis on unwavering obedience to authority , might be encouraging a military ideology that justifies the wartime killing of others  
(e.g., Frangicetto, [16.86]). In support of this position, archival research on Milgram's original study (Haslam et al., 2015b) found that the  
“teachers” were actually happy to participate—in spite of the emotional stress. Why? The participants believed they were contributing to a  
valuable enterprise with virtuous goals. Do you agree with archival researchers who suggest that the major ethical problem with Milgram's  
study lies not with the stress generated for the “teachers,” but with the ideology used to justify harming others?  
•Relaxed moral guard One common intellectual illusion that hinders critical thinking about obedience is the belief that only evil people do evil  
things, or that evil announces itself. The experimenter in Milgram's study looked and acted like a reasonable person who was simply carrying  
out a research project. Because he was not seen as personally corrupt and evil, the participants' normal moral guard was down, which can  
maximize obedience. As philosopher Hannah Arendt has suggested, the horrifying thing about the Nazis was not that they were so deviant but  
that they were so “terrifyingly normal.”  
Figure 16.16 Four factors that affect why we obeyThe first bar on the graph represents Milgram's original study, in which 65% of the  
participants gave the learner the full 450-volt level of shock. The color coding on the other bars (dark pink, yellow, green, and blue) corresponds  
to the four major conditions that either increased or decreased obedience to authority .  
The good news is that this type of destructive obedience can be reduced. See the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Modeling Civil Disobedience  
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Although the forces underlying obedience can be loud and powerful, one quiet, courageous, dissenting voice can make a difference. Perhaps the  
most beautiful and historically significant example of just this type of bravery occurred in Alabama in 1955. Rosa Parks boarded a bus and, as  
expected in those times, obediently sat in the back section marked “Negroes.” When the bus became crowded, the driver told her to give up her  
seat to a White man. Surprisingly for those days, Parks quietly but firmly refused and was eventually forced off the bus by police and arrested.  
This single act of disobedience was a major catalyst for the civil rights movement and the later repeal of Jim Crow laws in the South. Today , Rosa  
Parks's courageous stand also inspires the rest of us to carefully consider when it is appropriate and good to obey authorities and when we must  
resist unethical or dangerous demands.  
T est Y our Critical Thinking  
1\.   
What were the major social factors that contributed to Rosa Parks's willingness to stand up against the bus driver who ordered her to give her seat  
to a White man?  
2\.   
Does her model of disobedience encourage you to follow her example? Why or why not?  
Group Processes  
Although we seldom recognize the power of group membership, social psychologists have identified several important ways that groups affect us.  
Group Membership  
How do the roles that we play within groups affect our behavior? This question fascinated social psychologist Philip Zimbardo. In his famous  
study at Stanford University , 24 carefully screened, well-adjusted young college men were paid $15 a day for participating in a two-week  
simulation of prison life (Haney et al., [16.108]; Zimbardo, [16.267]).  
The students were randomly assigned to the role of either prisoner or guard. Prisoners were “arrested,” frisked, photographed, fingerprinted, and  
booked at the police station. They were then blindfolded and driven to the “Stanford Prison.” There, they were given ID numbers, deloused, issued  
prison clothing (tight nylon caps, shapeless gowns, and no underwear), and locked in cells. Participants assigned to be guards were outfitted with  
official-looking uniforms, official police nightsticks (“billy clubs”), and whistles, and they were given complete control.  
Not even Zimbardo foresaw how the study would turn out. Although some guards were nicer to the prisoners than others, they all engaged in some  
abuse of power . The slightest disobedience was punished with degrading tasks or the loss of “privileges” (such as eating, sleeping, and washing).  
As demands increased and abuses began, the prisoners became passive and depressed. One prisoner fought back with a hunger strike, which ended  
with a forced feeding by the guards.  
Four prisoners had to be released within the first four days because of severe psychological reactions. The study was stopped after only six days  
because of the alarming psychological changes in the participants.  
Note that this was not a true experiment in that it lacked a control group, an operational definition, and clear measurements of the dependent  
variable (Chapter 1). However, it did provide valuable insights into the potential effects of roles on individual behavior (Figure16.17). According  
to interviews conducted after the study , the students became so absorbed in their roles that they forgot they were participants in a psychology study  
(Zimbardo et al., [16.268]).  
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Figure 16.17 Power corruptsZimbardo's prison  
study showed how the power of roles and  
situations could produce dramatic changes in  
behavior in just a few days. Can you imagine what  
happens to prisoners during life imprisonment, sixyear sentences, or even a few nights in jail?  
Zimbardo's study also demonstrates deindividuation. T o be deindividuated means that we feel less self-conscious, less inhibited, and less  
personally responsible as a member of a group than when we're alone. This is particularly true when we feel anonymous. One of the most  
compelling explanations for deindividuation is the fact that the presence of others tends to increase arousal and feelings of anonymity, which is a  
powerful disinhibitor . As you may have noticed when attending large parties with people wearing costumes and masks, deindividuation can  
sometimes be healthy and positive. The anonymity and disinhibition contribute to the fun of being part of a happy, celebratory crowd. However , it  
also helps explain why vandalism seems to increase on Halloween (when people commonly wear masks), why cyberbullying occurs on the  
Internet, and why most crimes and riots occur at night—under the cover of darkness (Bae, [16.16]; Mikal et al., [16.179]; T ang & Fox, [16.238]).  
Can you imagine your own behavior changing under such conditions?  
Group and Individual Performance  
Can the presence of others affect our performance? The answer is: “It depends.” Sometimes having others around actually improves our  
performance—a phenomenon known as social facilitation. However , at other times, when people are observing us or when we're working in a  
group, our performance may be diminished, which is sometimes called social impairment(Kelly et al., [16.139]; Panagopoulos, [16.193]; Zajonc,  
[16.265]). How can both things be true? Think of times when you were assigned to work as a group for a class project or to give an individual  
presentation in class. If your group's task was simple or you had practiced your individual presentation many times, the presence of others  
probably increased your arousal and improved your performance—social facilitation. In contrast, if your group's task was difficult or you were not  
well prepared for your talk, the presence of others would likely lead to overarousal and impaired performance—social impairment(see Figure  
16.18).  
Figure 16.18 Social facilitation in  
action!According to social facilitation  
theory (and the Y erkes-Dodson law, Chapter  
12), we perform best at simple, well-learned  
tasks when our arousal is moderately high.  
But this same arousal leads to worse  
performance when the task is difficult and  
new .  
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A second, and related, factor in group performance is the degree to which our performance is monitored and we're held personally responsible for  
the outcome. As you may have experienced when working in a group, it's easier for some people to slack off and do less than others. This  
phenomenon is called social loafing(Amichai-Hamburger, [16.4]; Kim et al., [16.142]; Latané, [16.162]). These same “loafers” will work harder  
when working alone because they realize they will be solely accountable for the outcome.  
Given that social loafing is one of the major complaints about group assignments, how can we reduce this type of free riding on the efforts of  
others? Each individual's contributions can be made more identifiable, and all group members can be given the opportunity to anonymously assign  
points or grades to other group members. T eachers and supervisors should also work to increase team identification. When members of a group  
closely identify with other members and the team, they're more motivated to increase their efforts (e.g., Baumeister et al., [16.21]; De Cuyper et  
al., [16.64]).  
Group Decision Making  
W e've just seen how group membership affects the way we think about ourselves and our group or individual performance. But how do groups  
affect our decisions? Are two heads truly better than one?  
Most people assume that group decisions are more conservative, cautious, and middle-of-the-road than individual decisions. But is this true?  
Initial investigations indicated that after discussing an issue, people in groups actually supported decisions that were riskier than the decisions they  
made as individuals before the discussion (Stoner, [16.235]). Subsequent research on this risky-shift phenomenon, however , shows that some  
groups support riskier decisions while others support more conservative decisions (Atanasov & Kunreuther, 2016; Liu & Latané, [16.171];  
McGloin & Thomas, [16.177]).  
How can we tell whether a given group's decision will be risky or conservative? A group's final decision depends primarily on its dominant  
preexistingtendencies. If the dominant initial position is risky , the final decision will be even riskier , and the reverse is true if the initial position is  
conservative—a process called group polarization(Davis & Mason, [16.63]; Keating et al., [16.138]; Mikulincer et al., [16.181]).  
What causes group polarization? It appears that as individuals interact and share their opinions, they pick up new and more persuasive information  
that supports their original opinions, which may help explain why American politics have become so polarized in recent years (Gruzd & Roy,  
[16.104]; Suhay , [16.236]; W estfall et al., [16.254]). In addition, group polarization may explain how if we (1) interact only with like-minded  
people, (2) get our news only from sources that support our preexisting opinions, and (3) talk politics only with those who agree with us, we're  
likely to become even more polarized. An interesting study in W ashington, DC, found that interns who worked in a partisan workplace became  
more polarized in their opinions than those who worked in less partisan environments (Jones, [16.133]).  
Group polarization also occurs within the legal system. Imagine yourself as a member of a jury (Figure16.19). In an ideal world, attorneys from  
both sides would present the essential facts of the case. Then, after careful deliberation, each individual juror would move from his or her initially  
neutral position toward the defendant to a more extreme position—either conviction or acquittal. In a not-so-ideal world, the quality of legal  
arguments from opposing sides may not be equal, you and the other members of the jury may not be neutral at the start, and group polarization  
may cause most jurors to make riskier or more conservative judgments than they would have on their own.  
Figure 16.19 Juries and group polarizationWhen might  
group polarization be both a desirable and an undesirable  
part of jury deliberation?  
A related phenomenon is groupthink, which occurs when maintaining harmony among group members becomes more important than making a  
good decision (Brodbeck & Guillaume, [16.37]; Janis, [16.128]; Jones et al., [16.132]). As you can see in Concept Organizer16.1, there are  
many factors that explain groupthink, but the two most influential might be the pressure for uniformity and the unwillingness to hear dissenting  
information. Many highly publicized tragedies—from our failure to anticipate the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 to the terrorist attacks of  
September 11 and the subsequent war in Iraq—have been blamed on groupthink. Groupthink might also help explain why so few coaches or other  
staff members responded to allegations of child abuse by Jerry Sandusky , former assistant football coach at Penn State University .  
CONCEPT ORGANIZER 16.1 How Groupthink Occurs  
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This Concept Organizer contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
How can we prevent, or at least minimize, groupthink? As a critical thinker, first study the list of the antecedent conditions and symptoms of  
groupthink provided in Concept Organizer 16.1. Then try generating your own ideas for possible solutions. For example, you might suggest that  
group leaders either absent themselves from discussions or remain impartial and silent. Second, you might suggest that group members should  
avoid isolation, should be encouraged to voice their dissenting opinions, and should seek advice and input from outside experts. A third option is  
to suggest that members should generate as many alternatives as possible and that they should vote by secret ballot versus a show of hands.  
Finally , you might suggest that group members should be reminded that they will be held responsible for their decisions, which will help of fset the  
illusion of invulnerability , collective rationalizations, stereotypes, and so on.  
Some of these recommendations for avoiding groupthink were carefully implemented in the decisions that led to the 2011 assassination raid on  
Osama bin Laden's compound. Before the final call, each member of President Obama's decision-making team was polled, and Vice President Joe  
Biden felt free to disagree (Landler, [16.158]). For an in-depth, fascinating look at groupthink, watch the classic 1957 film T welve Angry Men.  
On a final, more personal level, can you see how spending time on social media, like Facebook, might increase both group polarization and  
groupthink? It's because we generally “friend” or “follow” people on social media who share our values and attitudes. And research has found that  
this limited information pool creates a type of “political bubble,” in which we're more likely to post and read one-sided news stories and  
comments that we and our friends favor (Bakshy et al., [16.17]). Furthermore, researchers have found that people tend to “unfriend” those with  
different political views (John & Dvir-Gvirsman, [16.131]). As you may have noticed, this type of unfriending can become particularly common  
during heated political times, such as before and after the 2016 U.S. elections. Does this research also help explain why people become so upset  
when their preferred presidential candidate loses? Our restricted “political bubble” has created a misperception that virtually “everyone I know  
voted for him or her!”  
Retrieval Practice 16.2 Social Influence  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix  
B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
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Self-T est  
1\.   
Compare conformity with obedience.  
2\.   
What percentage of people in Milgram's original study were willing to give the highest level of shock (450 volts)?  
a. 45%  
b. 90%  
c. 65%  
d. 10%  
3\.   
Which of the following factors may contribute to destructive obedience?  
a. Remoteness of the victim  
b. Foot-in-the-door  
c. Socialization  
d. All these options  
4\.   
One of the most critical factors in deindividuation is ________.  
a. loss of self-esteem  
b. anonymity  
c. identity diffusion  
d. group coagulation  
5\.   
Faulty decision making that occurs when maintaining group harmony becomes more important than making a good decision is known as  
________.  
a. the risky-shift  
b. group polarization  
c. groupthink  
d. destructive conformity  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology  
and chapters within this text.  
In this chapter , you learned about the power of r eference groupsto influence conformity . Using Erikson's psychosocial theory of development  
(Chapter 10, Lifespan Development II), explain how reference groups may be especially important in the development of teens' attitudes toward  
drinking.  
.  
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16.3 Social Relations  
LEARNING OBJECTIVES  
Retrieval PracticeWhile reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words.  
Summarize the influence of interpersonal relations.  
•Definesocial relations.  
•Discussaggression and the factors that increase and decrease it.  
•Describealtruism and the factors that increase and decrease it.  
•Identifyinterpersonal attraction and love, along with the factors that affect them.  
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947), often considered the “father of social psychology,” was among the first people to suggest that all behavior results from  
interactions between the individual and the environment. In this final section, on social r elations, we explore how we develop and are affected by  
interpersonal relations, including aggression, altruism, and interpersonal attraction.  
Aggression  
Why do people act aggressively? What exactly is aggression? When we intentionally try to inflict psychological or physical harm on another,  
psychologists define it as aggression. In this section, we explore its multiple causes and possible ways to reduce it.  
Biological Factors  
Because aggression has such a long history and is found in all cultures, some scientists believe that humans are instinctively aggressive (Buss &  
Duntley , [16.51]; Holekamp & Strauss, [16.1 17]; Peper et al., [16.197]). Most social psychologists reject this “instinct” argument, but do accept the  
fact that biology plays a role. Studies suggest, for example, that some individuals are genetically predisposed to have hostile, irritable temperaments  
and to engage in aggressive acts (Chester et al., [16.57]; Eisner et al., [16.73]; Pappa et al., [16.195]). Furthermore, studies have linked brain injuries,  
the hormone testosterone, and lowered levels of some neurotransmitters with aggressive behavior (Angus et al., [16.7]; Cristofori et al., [16.59];  
Kimonis et al., [16.143]). Finally, substance abuse (particularly alcohol abuse) is a major factor in aggression (Banks et al., [16.18]; Crane et al.,  
[16.58]; Kose et al., [16.147]).  
Psychosocial Factors  
In addition to the various biological factors that lead to aggression, there are numerous psychological and social influences. For instance, aversive  
stimuli, such as loud noise, heat, pain, bullying, insults, and foul odors, have been found to increase aggression (Anderson, [16.6]; DeW all et al.,  
[16.65]; LaMotte et al., [16.157]). Researchers who examined 57,293 Major League Baseball games from 1952 through 2009 found that on hot days,  
baseball pitchers were more likely to deliberately throw at and hit a batter in retaliation after a batter on their own team had been hit by the opposing  
pitcher (Larrick et al., [16.159])!  
Aggression is also sometimes learned through observation, modeling, and reinforcement (Chapter 6). Social learning theory suggests that people  
raised in an aggressive culture will develop more aggressive responses. As a case in point, the United States has a high rate of violent crime, and U.S.  
media (TV , the Internet, movies, and video games) frequently portray violence, which may contribute to aggression in both children and adults  
(Behm-Morawitz et al., [16.24]; Breuer et al., [16.34]; Krahé, [16.148]). Psychologist Bryan Gibson and his colleagues were among the first to  
demonstrate experimentally that watching documentary-type reality TV shows in which verbal and relational (e.g., bullying) aggression are prevalent  
increases viewer aggression more than watching violent crime drama (Gibson et al., [16.94]). In short, reality TV programs are not just “harmless  
entertainment”—they may in fact increase physical aggression.  
Keep in mind that some critics reject the conclusion that media violence increases aggression (e.g., Ferguson, [16.79], [16.80]). However, several  
meta-analyses and a task force of experts convened by the American Psychological Association (APA) all agree that media violence can increase  
aggressive behavior, as well as aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, desensitization, and overall physiological arousal (Bushman, [16.47]; Calvert et  
al., [16.53]).  
Reducing Aggression  
How can we control or eliminate aggression? Some people suggest we should release aggressive impulses by engaging in harmless forms of  
aggression, such as exercising vigorously , punching a pillow , or watching competitive sports. But studies suggest that this type of catharsisdoesn't  
really help and may actually increase aggressive feelings (Bushman, [16.46]; Kuperstok, [16.153]; Seebauer et al., [16.215]). Support also comes  
from Darwin's ([16.62]) theory of evolution, which proposed that freely expressing an emotion intensifies it, whereas repression of emotions tends to  
soften them.  
A more effective approach is to introduce incompatible r esponses. Because certain emotional responses, such as empathy and humor, are  
incompatible with aggression, purposely making a joke or showing some sympathy for an opposing person's point of view can reduce anger and  
frustration (Baumeister & Bushman, [16.22]; Gottman, [16.99]; Y ip & Schweitzer , [16.261]).  
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In addition, the presence and use of guns greatly increases aggression, and firearm violence affects everyone—particularly those targeted by hate and  
prejudice (Banks et al., [16.18]; Frattaroli & Buggs, [16.87]; McDaniel & Belar, [16.175]). Given that the rate of gun homicides in the United States  
remains substantially higher than in almost every other nation in the world, the American Psychological Association (AP A) commissioned a panel of  
experts to investigate the best methods for preventing gun violence. Consider their three recommendations:  
1.Primary (or universal) preventioninvolves promoting healthy development in the general population, such as teaching better social and  
communication skills to all ages.  
2.Secondary (or selective) preventionconsists of providing assistance for at-risk individuals, including mentoring programs and conflictmediation services.  
3.T ertiary (or indicated) preventioninvolves intensive services for individuals with a history of aggressive behavior to prevent a recurrence or  
escalation of aggression, such as programs that rehabilitate juvenile offenders (American Psychological Association, [16.3]).  
Altruism  
After reading about all the problems with aggression, you will no doubt be relieved to discover that human beings also behave in positive ways.  
People help and support one another by donating blood, giving time and money to charities, aiding stranded motorists, and so on. Altruism, a form of  
prosocial behavior, consists of behaviors designed to help or benefit others (Figure16.20).  
Figure 16.20 An example of true altruism?A  
firefighter gives water to a koala during the  
devastating Black Saturday bushfires in V ictoria,  
Australia, in 2009.  
When and Why Do W e Help?  
There are three general approaches predicting when and why we help (Figure16.21). The evolutionary theory of helpingsuggests that altruism is an  
instinctual behavior that has evolved because it favors survival of the helper's genes (Hackman et al., [16.105]; V anderlaan et al., [16.248]; Wilson,  
[16.260]). By helping our own biological child, or other relative, we increase the odds of our own genes' survival.  
Figure 16.21 Three models for helping altruismWhich of the three models for helping shown in this figure do you think provides the best  
explanation for why someone might give food or money to the man in this photo?  
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Other research suggests that altruism may actually be self-interest in disguise. According to this egoistic model of helping, we help others only  
because we hope for later reciprocation, because it makes us feel virtuous, or because it helps us avoid feeling distressed or guilty (Dickert et al.,  
[16.67]; Schroeder & Graziano, [16.213]).  
Opposing the evolutionary and egoistic models is the empathy–altruism hypothesis, which suggests that simply seeing or hearing of another person's  
suffering can create empathy—a subjective grasp of that person's feelings or experiences (Humphrey & Adams, [16.121]; Lebowitz & Dovidio,  
[16.164]; Patil et al., [16.196]). And when we feel empathic toward another, we are motivated to help that person for his or her own sake. For  
example, middle school students who had been bullied were more likely to say that they would help another student who was being bullied  
(Batanova et al., [16.20]). The ability to empathize may even be innate. Research with newborn infants finds that they're more likely to cry and  
become distressed at the sound of another infant's cries or the cries of an infant chimpanzee than in response to tape recordings of their own cries  
(Geangu et al., [16.93]; Hay , [16.1 12]; Laible & Karahuta, [16.155]).  
Why Don't W e Help?  
In 1964, a young woman, Kitty Genovese, was brutally stabbed to death near her apartment building in New Y ork City . The attack occurred about  
3:00 A.M. and lasted for over half an hour . According to news reports at the time, 38 of her neighbors supposedly watched the repeated attacks and  
heard her screams for help—yet no one came to her aid. Finally , one neighbor called the police, but it was too late. Kitty Genovese had died.  
The story of Kitty Genovese's murder gained national attention, with many people attributing her neighbors' alleged lack of responsiveness to the  
callousness of big city dwellers—New Y ork City residents, in particular . It's important to note, however , that later investigations found the early news  
reports to be filled with errors (Griggs, [16.102]; Seedman & Hellman, [16.216]).  
Despite the inaccuracies, this case inspired psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané ([16.61]) to conduct a large number of studies investigating  
exactly when, where, and why we do or don't help our fellow human beings. They found that whether or not someone helps depends on a series of  
interconnected events and decisions: the potential helper must notice what is happening, interpret the event as an emer gency , accept personal  
responsibility for helping, decide how to help, and then actually initiate the helping behavior (Step-by-Step Diagram16.2).  
STEP-BY -STEP DIAGRAM 16.2 When and Why Don't W e Help?  
This Step-by-step Diagram contains essential information NOT found elsewhere in the text, which is likely to appear on quizzes and exams. Be sure  
to study it CAREFULL Y!  
According to Latané and Darley's five-step decision process (1968), if our answer at each step is “yes,” we will help someone who seems to need  
help. If our answer is “no” at any point, the helping process ends.  
How does this sequence explain television news reports and “caught on tape” situations in which people are robbed or attacked, and no one comes to  
their aid? Potential helpers must first notice the incident and interpret it as an emergency (Steps 1 and 2). However, the breakdown in the decision to  
help generally comes at the third stage—accepting personal responsibility for helping. In follow-up interviews, most onlookers report that they failed  
to intervene and accept responsibility because they were certain that someone must already have called for “of ficial” help, such as the police or an  
ambulance. This so-called bystander effectis a well-known problem that affects our helping behavior (Bennett et al., [16.25]; Brewster & Tucker,  
[16.36]; Casey et al., [16.55]).  
Why are we less likely to help when others are around? According to the principle of diffusion of responsibility, we assume the responsibility for  
acting is shared, or diffused, among all onlookers (Brody & V angelisti, [16.38]; Obermaier et al., [16.190]). In contrast, when we're the lone observer,  
we recognize that we have the sole responsibility for acting.  
As a critical thinker, can you see how informational social influence, which we discussed earlier , may also play a role? Given that people in a group  
monitor the behavior of others to determine how to behave, we often fail to act because we assume others have more information than we do. For a  
practical application of all these terms, see the following Try This Y ourself.  
Try This Y ourself Saving Y our Own Life!  
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In one of the earliest studies of the failure to interpret a situation as an emergency , participants were asked to complete a questionnaire, either alone  
or with others. While they were working, a large amount of smoke was pumped into the room through a wall vent to simulate an emergency . As you  
might expect, most of the participants working alone, about 75%, quickly reported the smoke. In contrast, fewer than 40% reported smelling smoke  
when three other participants were in the room, and only 10% reported the smoke when they were with passive participants who ignored the smoke  
(Latané & Darley , [16.161]). Keep this study in mind when you're in a true emergency situation. Do not simply rely on others for information. Make  
your own quick decision to act. It may save your life!  
How Can W e Promote Helping?  
Considering what we've just learned about why we sometimes do and sometimes don't help (see again Step-by-Step Diagram 16.2), our first two  
steps for getting help from others are to have them “notice the event” and “interpret it as an emergency .” Imagine that you're being viciously attacked  
in a public place. What should you do? Y ou should begin by yelling and making a lot of noice to call attention your situation. Second, you need to  
clarify what's happening by screaming something like: “Help me! I'm being attacked.” Then, to encourage others to take personal responsibility (step  
3), try looking any bystander in the eye and say: “Y ou in the red shirt, call 911!”  
Do you see why the traditional advice most parents give to their children to prevent their abductions is problematic? Most parents only teach their  
children to yell and scream, but they forget that screaming children are often ignored because bystanders just assume they're misbehaving. Instead,  
children should be taught to make eye contact with an adult who may be watching and then to shout something like: “This isn't my parent. Help me!”  
In reverse situations in which you are the bystander and not the victim, the first step is to notice the incident. Then, if it seems unclear whether  
someone needs help or not, simply ask: “Do you need help?” Note, however, that there are occasions when someone in desperate need of help can't  
verbally respond to questions, and we may need to take immediate action. For example, during the final stages of drowning (versus just distressed  
swimming), victims are trying so hard to inhale and stay afloat that they're unable to call or signal for help. (For more information on the instinctive  
drowning response, see http://mariovittone.com/2010/05/154/.)  
In addition to these personal tips for increasing altruism, highly publicized television programs, like ABC's What W ould Y ou Do? and CNN Heroes,  
which honor and reward altruism, also increase helping. Enacting laws that protect helpers from legal liability, so-called “good Samaritan” laws,  
further encourages helping behavior .  
Interpersonal Attraction  
What causes us to feel admiration, liking, friendship, intimacy, lust, or love? All these social experiences are reflections of interpersonal attraction,  
our positive feelings toward another . Psychologists have found three compelling factors in interpersonal attraction: physical attractiveness, proximity,  
and similarity. Each influences attraction in different ways.  
Physical Attractiveness  
The way people look—including facial characteristics, body size, and dress—is one of the most important factors in initial attraction (Buss, [16.49],  
[16.50]; Fales et al., [16.75]; Olderbak et al., [16.191]). Attractive individuals are seen as more poised, interesting, cooperative, achieving, sociable,  
independent, intelligent, healthy , and sexually appealing (Kanazawa & Still, [16.137]; Sofer et al., [16.225]; T alamas et al., [16.237]). Recent studies  
even show that better-looking political candidates win more votes—particularly among low-knowledge voters (Ahler et al., [16.1]; Lev-On &  
W aismel-Manor, [16.168]).  
Evolutionary psychologists have long argued that men prefer attractive women because youth and good looks generally indicate better health, sound  
genes, and high fertility . W omen also feel attracted to healthy-looking men, along with reportedly preferring men with maturity and resources (e.g.,  
Fales et al., [16.75]). According to evolutionary theorists, this preference reflects the fact that mature men with more resources would be better  
providers, and the responsibility of rearing and nurturing children has historically fallen primarily on women's shoulders (Buss, [16.48], [16.50];  
Souza et al., [16.229]; V alentine et al., [16.246]). However, a recent study of online dating found that perceptions of wealth did not affect men's or  
women's partner selections (T skhay et al., [16.244]).  
Consider, too, that beauty is in “the eye of the beholder” (Figure16.22). What is judged as beautiful varies somewhat from era to era and culture to  
culture. For example, the Chinese once practiced foot binding because small feet were considered beautiful in women. All the toes except the big one  
were bent under a young girl's foot and into the sole. The incredible pain and physical distortion made it almost impossible for her to walk, and she  
also suffered chronic bleeding and frequent infections throughout her life (Dworkin, [16.72]).  
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Figure 16.22 Culture and attractionWhich of these two women do you find  
most attractive? Both women are beautiful and appear healthy, but can you see  
how your cultural background might train you to prefer one look over the  
other?  
Even in modern times, cultural demands for attractiveness encourage an increasing number of men and women to undergo strict, and sometimes  
dangerous, diets to reduce their body size, as well as expensive, and often painful, surgery to incr easethe size of their eyes, breasts, lips, chest, penis,  
or buttocks. At the same time, they also use surgery to decreasethe size of their nose, ears, chin, waist, hips, and thighs (Azzarito et al., [16.14];  
Jackson & V ares, [16.126]; Jeffreys, [16.130]). Sadly , but not surprisingly , when photos of actual college women were compared to a sample of  
Playboy Playmates and to imaginary women (e.g., cartoon and video-game characters), the college women were seen as the least attractive, and for  
both male and female raters, waist size was the most important determinant of female attractiveness (Lassek & Gaulin, [16.160]). Even more  
disturbing was the fact that the ideal, imaginary woman's measurements were nothing close to reality (see Figure16.23).  
Figure 16.23 Ideal female body?In the study  
mentioned in the text (Lassek & Gaulin,  
[16.160]), the average Playboy Playmate had a  
waist size of 23.5 inches, whereas the most  
popular imaginary woman, Jessica Rabbit—the  
cartoon character pictured here—was estimated  
to have a waist size of 10 inches. Can you see  
how these impossible and unrealistic images  
might contribute to some of the eating problems  
and disorders discussed in Chapter 12?  
Psychology and Y our Personal SuccessUsing Psychology to Incr ease Y our Dating Appeal  
So how do those of us who are not “superstar beautiful” manage to find mates? Researchers have found that past the initial meeting, a host of other  
factors, such as charisma, humor , personality , intelligence, and compassion become more important (Dillon et al., [16.69]; T alamas et al., [16.237];  
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T ornquist & Chiappe, [16.242]). Furthermore, research (and experience) shows that both sexes generally don't hold out for partners who are ideally  
attractive. Instead, according to the matching hypothesisand mating intelligencestudies, we tend to select partners whose physical attractiveness  
approximately matches our own (Dillon et al., [16.69]; McClintock, [16.174]; Regan, [16.204], [16.205]).  
Among the least recognized but most effective ways to increase attractiveness is through flirting (see Figure16.24). In addition, recent studies on  
body language conducted in the United States found that both men and women with “bigger postures”—outstretched arms and spread-apart legs—  
were judged more romantically appealing than those with limbs held tight (Figure16.25).  
Figure 16.24 Expert flirting  
tipsAlthough there are many  
ways to flirt, the two most  
universally successful ones  
for both sexes are smilingand  
eye contact.  
Figure 16.25 Body language and romantic attractionWhy are “bigger postures” more  
appealing? According to research, an expansive posture signals dominance, which is  
socially and culturally desirable in the United States, and thereby increases an  
individual's chance of being selected as a potential mate (V acharkulksemsuk et al.,  
[16.245]). Note that this research was conducted via speed-dating and smartphone-based  
dating applications. The results may not hold up past a second date!  
Why is flirting so effective? It signals availability and romantic interest. Specifically , given that almost everyone fears rejection, flirting provides  
positive cues of your interest (Hall & Xing, [16.107]; Kurzban, [16.154]; Sprecher et al., [16.230]). Note, however, that if you're not truly interested  
or available for dating, flirting can be unfair and misleading. If you'd like more tips and information on flirting, try these semi-scientific websites:  
•http://www .sirc.org/publik/flirt.pdf  
•http://theweek. com/articles/448643/how-flirt-according-science  
Proximity  
Attraction also depends on the two people being in the same place at the same time. Thus, proximity, or geographic nearness, is another major factor  
in attraction—(Finkel et al., [16.83]; Greenberg et al., [16.100]; Sprecher et al., [16.230]). One examination of over 300,000 Facebook users found  
that even though people can have relationships with people throughout the world, the likelihood of a friendship decreases as physical distance  
between people increases (Nguyen & Szymanski, [16.188]).  
There is experimental evidence supporting a potentially causative link between proximity and attraction. For example, oxytocin, a naturally occurring  
bodily chemical, is known to be a major facilitator of interpersonal attraction and parental attachment (Goodson, [16.97]; Preckel et al., [16.200];  
W eisman et al., [16.253]). In one very interesting experiment, the intranasal administration of oxytocin stimulated men in monogamous relationships,  
but not single ones, to keep a much greater distance between themselves and an attractive woman during a first encounter (Scheele et al., [16.211]).  
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The researchers concluded that oxytocin may help men maintain their monogamous relationships by making them avoid close personal proximity to  
other women.  
Why is proximity so important? It's largely due to r epeated exposure. Just as familiar people become more physically attractive over time, repeated  
exposure also increases overall liking. This makes sense from an evolutionary point of view . Things we have seen before are less likely to pose a  
threat than novel stimuli (Kongthong et al., [16.146]; Monin, [16.184]; Y oshimoto et al., [16.262]). In addition, repeated exposure explains why  
modern advertisers tend to run highly redundant ad campaigns with familiar faces and jingles. Again, repeated exposure generally increases liking!  
Before going on, keep in mind that although proximity is a significant factor in initial attraction, there's also good evidence that many couples can  
create and maintain very successful long-distance relationships (see the Research Challenge).  
Research Challenge Can Long-Distance Relationships Survive?  
One of the key ingredients to satisfaction and happiness in romantic relationships is frequent physical contact. Y et up to 75% of college students  
report having been in a long-distance romantic relationship (LDR), and over 3 million American spouses successfully live apart for a variety of  
reasons (cited in Borelli et al., [16.32]).  
How do couples, like the one in the photo, manage to survive (and even flourish) despite the relative lack of physical contact, reduced  
communication, and financial burdens associated with being separated by large geographical distances? The answer may be that they practice what's  
called r elational savoring, meaning sharing an experience with another person in an emotionally close relationship (Borelli et al., [16.33]). Savoring  
itself has been defined as the process of attending to, intensifying, and prolonging the positive emotions attached to experiences (Bryant & V eroff,  
[16.44]). In other words, relational savoring means paying close attention to and relishing and delighting in experiences shared with our significant  
other .  
Interested in the effects of relational savoring in LDR couples, researchers studied wives of military service members before and during their spouses'  
military deployment (Borelli et al., [16.32]). The researchers wondered whether relational savoring might result in better emotional states and  
protection against relationship threats in these couples. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups. Wives in the neutral condition  
were asked to think about and mentally replay their normal morning routine from the time they woke up until they left for work or school. In the  
personal savoringcondition, the wives were asked to focus and reflect on a positive personal experience. In the r elational savoringcondition, the  
wives were prompted to think about a positive experience with their partner when they felt especially “cherished, protected, or accepted.”  
In all conditions, participating wives reported not only on the details surrounding the experience, but also on their thoughts and feelings. They were  
then asked to spend two minutes mentally reliving the event. Perhaps surprisingly , only the participants who engaged in relational savoring showed  
increases in their positive emotions, decreases in their negative emotions, and increases in relationship satisfaction following a simulated relationship  
stressor task.  
What's the important takeaway? If a brief laboratory study prompting LDR participants to engage in relational savoring can have such positive  
effects, think about how it could be applied to your own life. While practicing the gratitude exercises mentioned in Chapter 12, remind yourself to  
stop and “savor” those moments and memories of times you felt particularly cherished, protected, or accepted by your romantic partner.  
T est Y ourself  
1\.   
Based on the information provided, did this study (Borelli et al., [16.32]) use descriptive, correlational, and/or experimental research?  
2\.   
If you chose:  
•descriptive research, is this a naturalistic observation, survey/interview , case study , and/or archival research?  
•corr elational research, is this a positive, negative, or zero correlation?  
•experimental research, label the IV , DV , experimental group(s), and control group. (Note: If participants were not randomly assigned to groups,  
list it as a quasi-experimental design.)  
•both descriptiveand corr elationalresearch, answer the corresponding questions for both  
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Check your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in AppendixB.  
Note:The information provided in this study is admittedly limited, but the level of detail is similar to what is presented in most textbooks and public  
reports of research findings. Answering these questions, and then comparing your answers to those provided, will help you become a better critical  
thinker and consumer of scientific research.  
Similarity  
The major cementing factor for long-term relationships, whether liking or loving, is similarity. W e tend to prefer and stay with, and even find more  
attractive, people who are most like us—those who share our ethnic background, social class, educational level, religion, interests, and attitudes  
(Brooks & Neville, [16.41]; Brown & Brown, [16.43]). One study found that people even judge others as less attractive if they hold a dissimilar  
political candidate preference (Nicholson et al., [16.189]). In other words, “birds of a feather flock together.”  
What about the old saying “opposites attract”? Although many people believe that couples need differences to “keep the spark alive,” a recent largescale study of over 47,000 participants found clear evidence for the importance of personality similarity between romantic partners and friends  
(Y ouyou et al., [16.263]). An attraction to a seemingly opposite person is more often based on the recognition that in one or two core personality  
traits, that person offers something we lack. In sum, lovers can enjoy some differences, but the more alike people are, the more both their loving and  
their liking endure. Unfortunately , initial attraction is most often guided by physical attractiveness and proximity , and we tend to ignore the  
importance of similarity in long-term relationships, which helps explain why there are so many breakups and divorces.  
The following Try This Y ourself feature offers a fun test of your understanding of the three factors in interpersonal attraction. Try it.  
Try This Y ourself Understanding Interpersonal Attraction  
Based on your reading of this section, can you explain Kvack's love for the wooden dummy?  
Loving Others  
It's easy to see why interpersonal attraction is a fundamental building block of our feelings about others. But how do we make sense of love? Why do  
we love some people and not others? Many people find the subject to be alternately mysterious, exhilarating, comforting—and even maddening. In  
this section, we explore the triangular theory of loveand the associated categories of consummate love, r omantic love, and companionate love.  
Robert Sternberg, a well-known researcher on creativity and intelligence (Chapter 8), proposed the triangular theory of love(Sternberg, [16.232],  
[16.233], [16.234]). As you can see in Figure16.26, his theory suggests that different types and stages of love result from three basic components:  
•Intimacy—emotional closeness and connectedness, mutual trust, friendship, warmth, self-disclosure, and forming of “love maps.”  
•Passion—sexual attraction and desirability, physical excitement, and a state of intense longing to be with the other .  
•Commitment—permanence and stability, the decision to stay in the relationship for the long haul, and the feelings of security that go with this  
intention.  
Figure 16.26 Sternberg's triangular theory of loveAccording to Sternberg, we all  
experience various forms and stages of love, six of which are seen as being on the  
outside of the triangle. He proposes that only true consummate loveis inside the  
triangle because it includes a healthy balance of intimacy , passion, and commitment.  
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Note that the balance among these three components naturally shifts and changes  
over the course of a relationship, but relationships based on only one or two of these  
elements are generally less fulfilling and less likely to survive.  
For Sternberg, a healthy degree of all three components in both partners characterizes the fullest form of love, consummate love. T rouble occurs  
when one of the partners has a higher or lower need for one or more of the components. As expected, if one partner has a much higher need for  
intimacy and the other partner has a stronger interest in passion, this lack of compatibility can be fatal to the relationship—unless the partners are  
willing to compromise and strike a mutually satisfying balance (Sternberg, [16.231]).  
When you think of romantic love, do you imagine falling in love, a magical experience that puts you on cloud nine? Romantic love, which is an  
intense feeling of attraction to another in an erotic context, has intrigued people throughout history (Fehr, [16.77]; Gottman, [16.99]; V annier &  
O'Sullivan, [16.249]). Its intense joys and sorrows have inspired countless poems, novels, movies, and songs around the world. A cross-cultural study  
by anthropologists William Jankowiak and Edward Fischer found romantic love in 147 of the 166 societies they studied. They concluded that  
“romantic love constitutes a human universal or, at the least, a near universal” (1992, p. 154).  
Romantic love may be almost universal, but even in the most devoted couples, the intense attraction and excitement of romantic love generally begin  
to fade 6 to 30 months after the relationship begins. Why? Romantic love is largely based on mystery and fantasy . People often fall in love with what  
they want another person to be—and these illusions usually fade with the realities of everyday living (Fletcher & Simpson, [16.84]; Levine,  
[16.167]). In contrast, companionate loveis based on deep and lasting trust, caring, tolerance, and friendship, which slowly develops as couples grow  
and spend more time together . See the following two Try This Y ourself features for more information.  
Try This Y ourself Can Y ou Find Lasting Love via Online Dating?  
T o test this question, researchers conducted an online survey of over 19,000 Americans (Cacioppo et al., [16.52]). Participants were asked if they  
were currently married, if they had ever been divorced, and if they met their current or former spouse online. Those who were married also  
completed a measure of relationship satisfaction.  
Researchers then compared divorce rates and marital satisfaction for those who met their spouse online versus those who did not. Surprisingly, they  
found a higher level of marital satisfaction and a significantly lower divorce rate for those whose marriages started online. Can you think of topics  
from this or any other chapter in this text, or from your own life experiences, that might explain why relationships that start online may be longer  
lasting and more satisfying than those that start in more traditional ways?  
Try This Y ourself What Happens to Love over the Lifespan?  
How can we keep romantic love alive? One of the most constructive ways is to recognize its fragile nature and nurture it with carefully planned  
surprises, flirting, flattery , and special dinners and celebrations. In the long run, however, romantic love's most valuable function might be to keep us  
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attached long enough to move on to the deeper and more enduring companionate love.  
As you can see in the figure, romantic love is high in the beginning of a relationship, but it tends to diminish over time, with periodic resurgences, or  
“spikes.” In contrast, companionate love usually steadily increases over time. One reason may be that satisfaction grows as we come to recognize the  
lasting value of companionship and intimacy (Gottman, [16.98], [16.99]; Jacobs Bao & L yubomirsky , [16.127]; Regan, [16.205]). One tip for  
maximizing companionate love is to overlook each other's faults. People are more satisfied with relationships when they have a somewhat idealized  
perception of their partner (Barelds & Dijkstra, [16.19]; Morry et al., [16.186]; Regan, [16.205]). This makes sense in light of research on cognitive  
dissonance (discussed earlier). Idealizing our mates allows us to believe we have a good deal—and thereby avoid any cognitive dissonance that  
might arise when we see an attractive alternative. As Benjamin Franklin wisely said, “Keep your eyes wide open before marriage, and half shut  
afterwards.”  
Final Note  
As the authors of this text, and your tour guides through the fascinating world of psychology, we hope you've enjoyed the journey . For us, the  
ultimate take-home message, which we hope you'll always remember, is that every human on this planet is an exclusive combination of a physical  
body , a complex system of mental processes, and a large context of sociocultural factors. Our deepest wish is that you'll make the most out of your  
own unique combination and foster your own growth mindset and grit—thereby improving your own life and the world around you.  
W armest regards,  
Retrieval Practice 16.3 Social Relations  
Completing this self-test and the connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B,  
will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams.  
Self-T est  
1\.   
Explain how making a joke might reduce aggression.  
2\.   
Altruism refers to actions designed to help others when ________.  
a. there is no obvious benefit to oneself  
b. there is a benefit to the altruistic person  
c. they have previously helped you  
d. they are in a position to help you in the future  
3\.   
Onlookers to crimes sometimes fail to respond to cries for help because of the ________phenomenon.  
a. empathy–altruism  
b. egoistic model  
c. inhumanity of large cities  
d. diffusion of responsibility  
4\.   
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The positive feelings we have toward others is called ________.  
a. affective relations  
b. interpersonal attraction  
c. interpersonal attitudes  
d. affective connections  
5\.   
A strong and lasting love characterized by deep trust, caring, tolerance, and friendship called ________.  
a. companionate love  
b. intimate love  
c. passionate love  
d. all these options  
Connections—Chapter to Chapter  
Answering the following question will help you “look back and look ahead” to see the important connections among the subfields of psychology and  
chapters within this text.  
In Chapter 1 (Introduction and Research Methods) and throughout this text, you have learned to apply the biopsychosocial perspective to different  
aspects of behavior and mental processes. In this chapter, you discovered several factors involved in interpersonal attraction. Using the  
biopsychosocial model, explain why people are attracted to each other.


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